Primate t-lymphotropic viruses

ABSTRACT

Disclosed are compositions and methods related to the isolation and identification of the primate T-lymphotropic viruses, HTLV-3 and HTLV-4. The diversity of HTLVs was investigated among central Africans reporting contact with NHP blood and body fluids through hunting, butchering, and keeping primate pets. Herein it is shown that this population is infected with a variety of HTLVs, including two retroviruses; HTLV-4 is the first member of a novel phylogenetic lineage that is distinct from all known HTLVs and STLVs; HTLV-3 falls within the genetic diversity of STLV-3, a group that has not previously been seen in humans. The present disclosure also relates to vectors and vaccines for use in humans against infection and disease. The disclosure further relates to a variety of bioassays and kits for the detection and diagnosis of infection with and diseases caused by HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 and related viruses.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation-in-part of co-pending International Application No. PCT/US2006/005869, filed Feb. 21, 2006, which in turn claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/654,484, filed on Feb. 21, 2005, now expired. Both of these prior applications are incorporated by herein by reference.

FIELD

Disclosed are compositions and methods related to the isolation and identification of the primate T-lymphotropic viruses, HTLV-3 and HTLV-4. The present disclosure also relates to vectors and vaccines for use in humans against infection and disease.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

Aspects of this invention were made with United States government support. Therefore, the government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Primate T-lymphotropic viruses (PTLVs) are diverse deltaretroviruses, composed of 3 distinct species (PTLV-1, -2, -3) which by conventional nomenclature are named ‘STLV’ (simian T-lymphotropic virus) when found in non-human primates (NHPs) and ‘HTLV’ (human T-lymphotropic virus) when found in humans, regardless of suspected zoonotic origin (Mahieux et al. 1998; Salemi et al. 1999; Slattery et al. 1999; Courgnaud et al. 2004). Like HIV, HTLV has the potential to cause disease and circulate globally in humans sexually, from mother-to-child, and by exposure to contaminated blood from transfusions and intravenous drug use. HTLV-1 causes adult T-cell leukemia and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraperesis (HAM/TSP) and other inflammatory diseases (Gessain & Mahieux 2000) and HTLV-2 has been associated with a neurologic disease similar to HAM/TSP (Araujo & Hall 2004). There has been no evidence to date of STLVs crossing into people occupationally exposed to NHPs in laboratories and primate centers, as has been documented with other primate retroviruses, including simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) (Khabbaz et al. 1994), simian foamy virus (SFV) (Switzer et al. 2004, Heneine et al. 1998), and simian type D retrovirus (Lerche et al. 2001). Nevertheless, ongoing zoonotic transmission of STLV to widespread human populations naturally exposed to NHPs through hunting or butchering, similar to that recently reported for SFV in African hunters (Wolfe et al. 2004b), would be of particular public health significance due to the transmissible and pathogenic nature of this group of viruses among humans. HTLV outside of the PTLV-1 and PTLV-2 groups has not previously been documented (Busch et al. 2000; VanDamme et al. 1997; Salemi et al. 1999; Slattery et al. 1999).

SUMMARY

Disclosed herein are compositions and methods that include the full and partial nucleic acid sequences of primate T-lymphotropic viruses known as HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, including viral fragments. These viruses are useful as reagents for the screening of human populations for the prevalence of such viruses. The disclosed viruses also can serve as vectors in gene therapy because the viruses appear to not be transmitted from humans to other humans. Additionally, the disclosed viruses can be used as reagents in pathogenicity studies of these and related viruses. Moreover, the sequences of the primate T-lymphotropic viruses described herein can be used as probes to detect virus in biological samples. Vectors are disclosed that express the HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 nucleic acid sequences, and include, but are not limited to, prokaryotic, eukaryotic and viral vectors. The disclosed viruses also can be used as live recombinant virus vaccines. Additionally, the disclosed viruses can be used as replicating viral systems to kill live dividing cells, either in vitro or in vivo.

The present disclosure also includes the isolation and characterization of primate T-lymphotropic viruses, HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, that are believed to have been transmitted from non-human primates to humans at some point in the past. The primate T-lymphotropic viruses described herein do not appear to be readily transmitted from human to human, and can be used in protocols for diagnosing primate T-lymphotropic virus infections, and as vectors in gene therapy procedures.

Compositions are provided that include live replicating retroviral vectors, wherein the vector is derived from a primate T-lymphotropic virus, and wherein the vector also includes a nucleic acid that encodes a primate T-lymphotropic virus peptide, polypeptide, or protein, or a fragment of a primate T-lymphotropic virus peptide, polypeptide, or protein. For example, the vector can be derived from an HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 virus. Thus, in one aspect, a composition is provided that includes live replicating primate T-lymphotropic virus vectors.

Also provided is a method of treating a subject with a condition, wherein the condition is a viral infection, bacterial infection, parasitic infection, proliferative disorder (e.g., cancer), or a condition associated with a genetic or autoimmune disorder. The method includes administering to the subject a live replicating viral vector, wherein the immunizing construct is specific for the condition.

Also provided is a method of preventing a condition in a subject, wherein the condition can be a viral infection, bacterial infection, parasitic infection, proliferative disorder, or a condition associated with a genetic or autoimmune disorder. The method includes administering to the subject a live replicating viral vector, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is specific for the condition. Also provided are methods of using the vectors, isolated viruses, and/or infectious clones described herein for making viral infection models and using models to study diseases and potential treatments, as well as the models themselves.

Also disclosed are methods and compositions for detecting primate T-lymphotropic virus or a protein encoded therein in biological fluids. The disclosure also encompasses antibodies specific for the primate T-lymphotropic virus and antibodies that inhibit the binding of antibodies specific for the primate T-lymphotropic virus. These antibodies can be polyclonal antibodies or monoclonal antibodies, which also includes fragments of any type of antibody. Thus, disclosed are antibodies to HTLV-3 or HTLV-4. The antibodies specific for the primate T-lymphotropic virus can be used in diagnostic kits to detect the presence and quantity of primate T-lymphotropic virus in biological fluids or in organs from nonhuman primates for xenotransplantation. For example, an HTLV-3 antibody can be used in a diagnostic kit to detect HTLV-3. Antibodies specific for primate T-lymphotropic virus may also be administered to a human or animal to passively immunize the human or animal against primate T-lymphotropic virus, thereby reducing infection, for instance after accidental exposure to nonhuman primate bodily fluids.

Other embodiments of the disclosure are methods and kits for detecting the presence and quantity of antibodies that bind primate T-lymphotropic virus, for example in body fluids. Such kits can be used for the detection of primate T-lymphotropic virus itself, or for the detection of antibodies to the primate T-lymphotropic virus, and also can be used to monitor the blood supply for the presence of primate T-lymphotropic virus. The disclosed kits include, for example, a kit for the detection of antibodies to HTLV-3 or HTLV-4.

Also included in the disclosure are recombinant live virus vaccines. The virus of the present disclosure has areas of its genome that make it useful for the insertion of exogenous genes. The inserted gene(s) can code for any protein for which vaccination or gene therapy is desired. A useful aspect of such recombinant live viruses is that the recombinant HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 does not cause disease in the host organism. The recombinant live virus vaccines of the present disclosure are a safe way to provide antigen to the immune system.

Accordingly, provided is a composition comprising a primate T-lymphotropic virus, or a fragment of the viral gene or the encoded protein. An example of the disclosed primate T-lymphotropic virus includes, but is not limited to HTLV-3 and HTLV-4. Also provided is a method of detecting a primate T-lymphotropic virus, such as HTLV-3 or HTLV-4.

Also provided are methods and compositions for detecting the presence and amount of primate T-lymphotropic virus in a body fluid or organ. Further embodiments are compositions and methods for treating genetic and physiologic disorders using gene therapy techniques that include the primate T-lymphotropic virus of the present disclosure as a vector for nucleic acid sequences and antisense sequences.

Further embodiments include providing compositions and methods useful for manipulating the expression of genes, providing vaccines, providing compositions and methods for treating viral infections in humans or animals, providing compositions and methods that are effective in treating genetic diseases, and providing a method of treating microbial infections in humans or animals. Yet still other embodiments include providing for treatments of conditions that are caused in part by rapidly dividing cellular growth, providing live recombinant virus vaccines, and providing diagnostic tools such as antibodies or antigens for the monitoring of the blood supply or organ and tissue donation for the presence of primate T-lymphotropic virus.

These and other features and advantages will become apparent after a review of the following detailed description of the disclosed embodiments and the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings illustrate several embodiments and, together with the description, illustrate the disclosed compositions and methods.

FIG. 1 is a digital image showing the Western blot serological pattern of Human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV) infected African hunters. HTLV classification based on phylogenetic analyses is provided above specimen names. Reactivity to HTLV-specific proteins is indicated on left.

FIG. 2 shows the phylogenetic relationships of (a) primate T-cell lymphotropic virus polymerase (a) PTLV pol (662-bp), (b) PTLV env (297-bp), (c) PTLV tax (730-bp), (d) PTLV-3 long terminal repeat (LTR) (398-bp), and (e) PTLV pol-env-tax region (5258-bp) sequences by neighbour joining analysis. Sequences generated in the current study are noted with boxes. Nonhuman primate taxon codes are provided in the Methods portion of the Examples section of the specification. Support for the branching order was determined by 1,000 bootstrap replicates, and only values 60% or greater are shown. Branch lengths are proportional to the evolutionary distance (scale bar) between the taxa.

FIG. 3 shows the phylogenetic relationships of PTLV type 1 LTR (377-bp) sequences by neighbour joining analysis. Sequences generated in the current study are noted with boxes. Nonhuman primate taxon codes are provided in the Methods portion of the Examples section of the specification. Support for the branching order was determined by 1,000 bootstrap replicates and only values 60% or greater are shown. Branch lengths are proportional to the evolutionary distance (scale bar) between the taxa.

FIG. 4 shows the strategy for PCR-amplifying the entire HTLV-3(2026ND) genome. Small proviral sequences were first amplified in each major gene region and the long terminal repeat (stippled bars) using generic primers as described in the Methods portion of the Examples section of the specification. The complete proviral sequence was then obtained by using PCR primers located within each major gene region by genome walking as indicated with arrows and orange bars. The typical HTLV-1 genomic organization is provided for reference.

FIG. 5( a) shows the nucleotide sequence of the HTLV-3(2026ND) LTR and pre-gag region. The U3-R-U5 locations (vertical lines), the approximate cap site (cap), the polyadenylation signal, TATA box, the predicted splice donor site (sd-LTR), and two 21-bp repeats are indicated. In the R and U5 regions, the predicted Rex core elements and nuclear riboprotein A1 binding sites are underlined. The pre-gag region and primer binding site (PBS, underlined) are in italics. FIG. 5( b) shows the plot of predicted RNA stem loop secondary structure of HTLV-3(2026ND) LTR region. Position of the Rex responsive element (RexRE) core is indicated.

FIG. 6 shows a comparison of predicted Tax amino acid sequences of primate T-cell lymphotropic viruses (PTLV). Shown in boxes are known functional motifs: NLS, nuclear localization signal; (CBP)/P300, cAMP response element (CREB) binding protein; NES, nuclear export signal; CR2, C-terminal transcriptional activating domain binding; PDZ.

FIG. 7 shows a comparison of predicted amino acid sequences of primate T-cell lymphotropic viruses (PTLV) and cellular basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors. Conserved arginine rich and leucine zipper regions of the bZIP proteins are boxed. Frameshift mutation of HTLV-2(MoT) leucine zipper region is depicted with italics.

FIG. 8 shows the phylogenetic relationship of HTLV-3(2026ND) to other PTLVs (a) entire genome sans long terminal repeat (LTR), (b) gag, (c), polymerase (pol), and (d) envelope (env). Sequences generated in the current study are shown in boxes. Support for the branching order was determined by 1,000 bootstrap replicates; only values of 60% or more are shown. Branch lengths are proportional to the evolutionary distance (scale bar) between the taxa.

FIG. 9 shows the estimated divergence dates for the most recent common ancestor of HTLV-3(2026ND) and other PTLVs. Divergence dates are provided for each major node of a neighbor-joining tree rooted with PTLV-1 as the outgroup; estimates are provided as ranges using as calibration points 40,000 and 60,000 years ago (YA) as the separation of the Melanesisan HTLV-1 (MEL5) sequence from other PTLV-1 strains. Bootstrap analysis of 1000 replicates is shown on the tree branches; only values >60% are shown.

FIG. 10 (which includes four pages) shows the full-length genomic sequence of HTLV-4(1863LE).

FIG. 11 shows the plot of predicted RNA stem loop secondary structure of the HTLV-4(1863LE) LTR region. Position of the Rex responsive element (RexRE) core is indicated.

FIG. 12 shows the phylogenetic relationships of PTLV full-length genomic sequences, including full-length genomic HTLV-3 and HTLV-4. These findings confirm the genetic relationships found earlier that were based on smaller sequences. Four major phylogroups were inferred with very high bootstrap support. Nonhuman primate taxon codes are provided in the Methods portion of the Examples section of the specification. Support for the branching order was determined by 1,000 bootstrap replicates and only values 60% or greater are shown. Branch lengths are proportional to the evolutionary distance (scale bar) between the taxa.

FIG. 13 shows the estimated divergence dates for the most recent common ancestor of HTLV-3(2026ND), HTLV-4(1863LE) and other PTLVs. Divergence dates are provided for each major node of a neighbor-joining tree rooted with PTLV-1 as the outgroup; estimates are provided as ranges using as calibration points 40,000 and 60,000 years ago (YA) as the separation of the Melanesisan HTLV-1 (MEL5) sequence from other PTLV-1 strains. Using the bovine leukemia virus (BLV) as an outgroup, a substitution rate of 8.6×10⁻⁷ to 1.3×10⁻⁶ substitutions/site/year for PTLV was inferred which is 3 logs lower than that seen in HIV, confirming the genetic stability of these deltaretroviruses. Bootstrap analysis of 1,000 replicates is shown on the tree branches; only values >60% are shown.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present compounds, compositions, articles, devices, and/or methods are disclosed and described, it is to be understood that they are not limited to specific synthetic methods or specific recombinant biotechnology methods unless otherwise specified, or to particular reagents unless otherwise specified, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.

I. Terms

As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a pharmaceutical carrier” includes mixtures of two or more such carriers, and the like.

Ranges can be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. When such a range is expressed, another embodiment includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms another embodiment. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint. It is also understood that there are a number of values disclosed herein, and that each value is also herein disclosed as “about” that particular value in addition to the value itself. For example, if the value “10” is disclosed, then “about 10” is also disclosed. It is also understood that when a value is disclosed that “less than or equal to” the value, “greater than or equal to the value” and possible ranges between values are also disclosed, as appropriately understood by the skilled artisan. For example, if the value “10” is disclosed the “less than or equal to 10” as well as “greater than or equal to 10” is also disclosed. It is also understood that throughout the document, data are provided in a number of different formats, and that this data, represents endpoints and starting points, and ranges for any combination of the data points. For example, if a particular data point “10” and a particular data point 15 are disclosed, it is understood that greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, and equal to 10 and 15 are considered disclosed as well as between 10 and 15.

“Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where said event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not.

“Primers” are a subset of probes which are capable of supporting some type of enzymatic manipulation and which can hybridize with a target nucleic acid such that the enzymatic manipulation can occur. A primer can be made from any combination of nucleotides or nucleotide derivatives or analogs available in the art which do not interfere with the enzymatic manipulation.

“Probes” are molecules capable of interacting with a target nucleic acid, typically in a sequence specific manner, for example through hybridization. The hybridization of nucleic acids is well understood in the art and discussed herein. Typically a probe can be made from any combination of nucleotides or nucleotide derivatives or analogs available in the art.

Depending on context, the term “virus” is understood to include the infectious viral particle or the nucleic acide contained therein, or both.

Throughout this application, various publications are referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference into this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this disclosure pertains. The references disclosed are also individually and specifically incorporated by reference herein for the material contained in them that is discussed in the sentence in which the reference is relied upon.

II. Compositions

Disclosed are the components to be used to prepare the disclosed compositions as well as the compositions themselves to be used within the methods disclosed herein. These and other materials are disclosed herein, and it is understood that when combinations, subsets, interactions, groups, etc. of these materials are disclosed that while specific reference of each various individual and collective combinations and permutation of these compounds may not be explicitly disclosed, each is specifically contemplated and described herein. For example, if a particular HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 or gene of the HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 such as gag, pol, env, LTR, rex, and tax is disclosed and discussed and a number of modifications that can be made are discussed, specifically contemplated is each and every combination and permutation of HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 or genes of the HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 such as gag, pol, env, LTR, rex, and tax and the modifications that are possible unless specifically indicated to the contrary. Thus, if a class of molecules A, B, and C are disclosed as well as a class of molecules D, E, and F and an example of a combination molecule, A-D is disclosed, then even if each is not individually recited each is individually and collectively contemplated meaning combinations, A-E, A-F, B-D, B-E, B-F, C-D, C-E, and C-F are considered disclosed. Likewise, any subset or combination of these is also disclosed. Thus, for example, the sub-group of A-E, B-F, and C-E would be considered disclosed. This concept applies to all aspects of this application including, but not limited to, steps in methods of making and using the disclosed compositions. Thus, if there are a variety of additional steps that can be performed it is understood that each of these additional steps can be performed with any specific embodiment or combination of embodiments of the disclosed methods.

Furthermore, although the disclosed nucleic acid sequences are represented as DNA sequences, it is understood that the equivalent RNA sequences also are contemplated. For instance, if a DNA sequence contains a thymine, it is understood that a uracil also can be substituted.

Disclosed herein are compositions relating to primate T-lymphotropic viruses HTLV-3 (SEQ ID NO: 36) and HTLV-4 (SEQ ID NOs: 53 and 81). It is understood and herein contemplated that the compositions of the disclosure can comprise the entire HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 virus nucleic acid sequence. It is also understood that the disclosed compositions can comprise proteins of the disclosed primate T-lymphocyte viruses or fragments of the disclosed proteins. For example, specifically disclosed and herein contemplated are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, 35, 45, 47, 49, 51, and 52, or any combination thereof. Also disclosed are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 59, 61, and 63 or any combination thereof. Also disclosed are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 37, 40, 44, 46, 48, and 50 or any combination thereof. Also disclosed are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 54, 57, 58, 60, and 62 or any combination thereof. Also disclosed are compositions comprising fragments of the disclosed proteins. Thus, for example are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 38, 39, 41, 42, and 43 or any combination thereof. Also disclosed are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 55 and 56. It is understood and herein contemplated that any of the disclosed proteins can be used in combination with any of the protein fragments in the compositions disclosed herein. Thus, for example, disclosed herein are compositions comprising SEQ ID NOs: 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, and 50 or any combination thereof. Also disclosed are SEQ ID NOs: 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, and 62 or any combination thereof. SEQ ID NOs 1-6, 35, and 45 can be used for all the molecular biological techniques known to those skilled in the art. Such uses include, but are not limited to, generation of probes and vectors containing the sequences, antisense sequences derived from such sequences, and proteins synthesized using the sequences. RNA and other nucleic acid derivatives are contemplated by the present disclosure.

It is understood that there are known viruses in the art that based on certain genomic or sequence similarity or taxonomically related to the viruses disclosed herein. It is also understood that the known viruses in the art thought related taxonomically do not encode the specific viruses disclosed herein. Thus specifically disclosed and herein contemplated are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having a pol gene that has less than 63.5% identity to the pol gene of HTLV-1, HTLV-2, STLV-2, and STLV-3, for example, HTLV-4. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having a gag gene that has less than 69% identity to the gag gene of HTLV-1, HTLV-2, STLV-2, and STLV-3, for example, HTLV-3. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having a pol gene that has less than 62% identity to the pol gene of HTLV-1, HTLV-2, STLV-2, and less than 86% identity to the pol gene of STLV-3, for example, HTLV-3. Similarly, the disclosed viruses can be distinguished based on the genes encoded by the disclosed viruses, and specifically the identity of said genes to the corresponding genes of known viruses. Thus, specifically disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having a LTR that has less than 41% identity to the LTR of HTLV-1, HTLV-2 and STLV-3. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 92.8% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 1.

Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic virus having at least 92.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 3. Also disclosed are primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 94.2% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 5. Also disclosed are primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 91.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 35. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 92.8% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 1, at least 92.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 3, and at least 94.2% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 5.

HTLV-4 is a unique delta primate T-lymphotropic virus that is distinct from all known PTLV lineages with 29-34.4% and 18.3-25% nucleotide divergence in the conserved pol and tax genes, respectively, a range of divergence similar to that between PTLV-1, PTLV-2, and PTLV-3. This virus formed a separate phylogenetic lineage with a long branch length and significant bootstrap support in both the pol (FIG. 2 a) and tax (FIG. 2 c) trees. Identical topologies were obtained by using maximum likelihood analysis. Phylogenetic analyses combined with GenBank blast searches show that this is the only known virus in this group. For these reasons, this virus, which was designated HTLV-4, qualifies as the first member of a group in the deltaretrovirus genus. Following the guidelines of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses and pending formal classification, primate T-lymphotropic virus 4 (PTLV-4) was proposed as the name for this species, and PTLV-4(1863LE) as the prototype strain. Due to the classification of the virus within the family retroviridae, certain sequence similarity is expected to exist with known retroviruses. It is understood that the known viruses in the art thought to be related taxonomically do not encode the specific viruses disclosed herein. Thus, specifically disclosed and herein contemplated are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 71.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 2. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 73.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 4. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 82% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 6. Also disclosed are isolated primate T-lymphotropic viruses having at least 71.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 2, at least 73.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 4, and at least 82% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 6.

Knowing the sequence for HTLV-3 and/or HTLV-4 allows for various uses of the virus and viral sequences. The env gene of HTLV-3 and/or HTLV-4 is necessary for primate T-lymphotropic virus entry into animal cells. The genes of the present disclosure are effective in permitting infection of cells in a human host. Thus, for example, the env gene is used for uptake of foreign DNA by a wide range of human cells. There has long been a need for vectors for getting foreign nucleic acids into cells, both in vivo and in vitro. The introduction of foreign or exogenous nucleic acids into cells has been a technological hurdle for many gene therapy applications and has now been solved by the virus and sequences herein disclosed. The env sequences can be used with any vector known to those skilled in the art, and with any other genetic sequences of choice, to allow for entry of the nucleic acids into the cells.

The recent advent of technology, and advances in the understanding of the structure and function of many genes makes it possible to selectively turn off or modify the activity of a given gene. Alteration of gene activity can be accomplished many ways. For example, oligonucleotides that are complementary to certain gene messages or viral sequences, known as “antisense” compounds, have been shown to have an inhibitory effect against viruses. By creating an antisense compound that hybridizes with the targeted RNA message of cells or viruses the translation of the message into protein can be interrupted or prevented. In this fashion gene activity can be modulated.

The ability to deactivate specific genes provides great therapeutic benefits. For example, it is possible to fight viral diseases with antisense molecules that seek out and destroy viral gene products. In tissue culture, antisense oligonucleotides have inhibited infections by herpes-viruses, influenza viruses and the human immunodeficiency virus that causes AIDS. It is also possible to target antisense oligonucleotides against mutated oncogenes. Antisense technology also can be used to regulate growth and development. However, in order for the gene therapy to work, antisense sequences must be delivered across cellular plasma membranes to the cytosol.

Gene activity is also modified using sense DNA in a technique known as gene therapy. Defective genes are replaced or supplemented by the administration of “good” or normal genes that are not subject to the defect. Instead of being defective, the gene may have been deleted, thus replacement therapy would provide a copy of the gene for use by the cell. The administered normal genes can either insert into a chromosome or may be present as extracellular DNA and can be used to produce normal RNA, leading to production of the normal gene product. In this fashion gene defects and deficiencies in the production of a gene product may be corrected.

Still further gene therapy has the potential to augment the normal genetic complement of a cell. For example, one way to combat HIV is to introduce into an infected person's T cells a gene that makes the cells resistant to HIV infection. This form of gene therapy is sometimes called “intracellular immunization.” Genetic material such as a polynucleotide sequence may be administered to a mammal in a viral vector to elicit an immune response against the gene product of the administered nucleic acid sequence. Such gene vaccines elicit an immune response in the following manner. First, the viral vector containing the nucleic acid sequence is administered to a human or animal. Next, the administered sequence is expressed to form a gene product within the human or animal. The gene product inside the human or animal is recognized as foreign material and the immune system of the human or animal mounts an immunological response against the gene product. The viruses disclosed herein can be used as viral vectors to provide the foreign nucleic acid sequences to the intracellular metabolic processes.

Additionally, gene therapy can be used as a method of delivering drugs in vivo. For example, if genes that code for therapeutic compounds can be delivered to endothelial cells, the gene products would have facilitated access to the blood stream. Additionally, cells could be infected with a retroviral vector such as the present disclosure carrying nucleic acid sequences coding for pharmaceutical agents that prevent infection from occurring in the retrovirally infected cells.

The primate T-lymphotropic viruses of the present disclosure can also be used a safe and effective vaccine agent. Genetic sequences for immunogenic proteins from a variety of infectious agents can be incorporated into the primate T-lymphotropic virus RNA. Once inside a cell, the gene product is expressed and releases the immunizing peptide to the body's immune system. In another method, the disclosed viruses can be used to immunize the body against cell markers found on cancer or tumor cells. The genetic sequence of the cancer cell marker is incorporated into the primate T-lymphotropic virus RNA, and after infection with the virus, the expressed gene product stimulates the immune system. The subject's immune system is used to remove the cancerous cells, obviating the need for chemotherapeutic methods.

Such treatment with HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 can be used for any condition in which rapidly dividing cells provide an aspect of the pathology of the condition. One such condition is the presence of uncontrolled angiogenesis within the body. Angiogenesis dependent diseases are well known in the art and are caused in part by the rapid growth of blood vessels. Another such condition is cancer or tumor growth. Cancer or tumors include both solid tumors and other types. Infection with the virus of the present disclosure, which can cause no disease and does not affect the host systemically, is an improvement over currently known treatments that involved systemically administered agents. Such chemotherapeutic agents kill rapidly dividing cells but also cause trauma to the entire person. The dosages of such chemotherapeutic agents must be titered between killing the cancer and killing the subject.

In contrast, the cancer treatments disclosed are not as harmful to the subject. The virus can either be administered systemically or injected in situ into the tumor. The infected cells are killed and tumor growth is stopped. The virus may be administered in one treatment or in a series of treatments.

The HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 of the present disclosure can be recombinantly modified to be selective for cellular receptors on the tumor to make the virus even more specifically targeted to just those cells. Additionally, the virus may have altered promoter regions that can be selectively activated to cause a productive infection. The combination of different levels of control of the virus, both natural and recombinantly-produced, are contemplated herein. A virus can be made specific for attachment to only certain types of cellular receptors, for those cells that are dividing, and will only undergo replication if another exogenous promoter factor is present. Viral infection by two or more individually defective viruses, that require factors or promoters supplied by other primate T-lymphotropic viruses or any type of virus, can provide for many levels of control of infection or treatment of specific conditions.

The virus may be administered to the host, for cancer treatment, gene therapy or vaccination by any methods known to those skilled in the art. Such methods include but are not limited to injection, inhalation, ingestion, topical administration and implantation. The virus may be killed or live, depending on the treatment considered.

The antibodies disclosed herein can be used to detect the presence of the disclosed viruses or viral particles. These antibodies can be used in diagnostic or screening kits to assess the presence of the virus. Additionally, the antibodies can be used to screen organs from nonhuman primates that may be used in humans. For instance, detection of the presence of a virus that is transmitted from nonhuman primates to humans is crucial in providing virus-free organs for transplantation.

It is believed that the virus of the present disclosure, comprising the isolates from HTLV-3, is the first definitive isolation of an STLV-3-like primate T-lymphotropic virus from persons exposed to nonhuman primates. This belief is supported by the epidemiology data, the PCR and sequencing data and the serology data and the absence of such reports in the literature. It is understood that HIV-1 and HIV-2 used to be called HTLV-III and HTLV-IV before it was known they were different types of viruses. Additionally, the virus of the present disclosure comprising the isolates from HTLV-4, are a new species in the delta primate T-lymphotropic viruses.

III. Vectors

Disclosed are live replicating human primate T-lymphotropic virus vectors suitable for human use comprising an immunizing construct, wherein the immunizing construct is inserted in nontranslated region between env and tax/rex. The disclosed immunizing construct can be an antigen-encoding nucleic acid.

Where reference is made to “antigen”-encoding nucleic acid, it is understood that in the context of the disclosure antigens encoded by the antigen-encoding nucleic acid can include but are not limited to immunogenic or non-immunogenic peptides, polypeptides, proteins, enzymes, cytokines. These antigens can be non-human exogenous antigenic sequences from viruses, bacteria, or parasites. The antigens can also be antigenic endogenous human or human derived sequences from a condition such as a cancer. Also, peptides encoded by the antigen-encoding nucleic acid can include non-antigenic sequences for the purposes of gene therapy.

In another embodiment of the present disclosure, sequences of the disclosed primate T-lymphotropic viruses can be used for other molecular biological applications. Regions of the gag gene are important in packaging genetic material. For example, the gag sequence or regions of the sequence are incorporated into other vectors and direct the packaging of the resultant genetic material for the particular application desired, such as packaging recombinant sequences to make altered infectious virions. Regions of the pol gene are known to be critical for the stable integration of foreign/viral DNA into the host genome. Vectors comprising the pol gene sequences can be used to integrate any DNA into a genome. The primate T-lymphotropic virus and sequences of the present disclosure infect human cells, and thus, these sequences are used with other foreign or exogenous sequences in humans in methods, including, but not limited to, entry into cells, packaging, and insertion into the genome. Additionally, methods of using the disclosed primate T-lymphotropic virus and other sequences of the present disclosure are not limited to human cells, but all cells that allow for infection or entry of the nucleic acids.

The present disclosure is directed to compositions and methods comprising new primate T-lymphotropic viruses, HTLV-3 and/or HTLV-4, particularly compositions and methods for the sequences of the viral genome. The virus was obtained from humans. The new virus of the present disclosure is an excellent vector for gene therapy and for vaccination purposes. Additionally, the antibodies or other detection methods for detecting the new virus are important in detecting the presence of this and related viruses for xenotransplantation. In addition, the disclosed primate T-lymphotropic viruses can be used as reagents in pathogenicity studies of these and related viruses. Moreover, the sequences of the disclosed primate T-lymphotropic viruses can be used as probes to detect virus in biological samples. Vectors include but are not limited to prokaryotic, eukaryotic and viral vectors.

Many new useful technologies have been developed that use viral vectors and form the basis of medical therapies. Examples of such technologies include, but are not limited to, gene replacement, antisense gene therapy, in situ drug delivery, treatment of cancer or infectious agents, and vaccine therapy. However, to be successful, these technologies require an effective means for the delivery of the genetic information across cellular membranes.

It is well-known in the art that vaccinations can be used prophylacticly for the prevention of infections as well as therapeutically for the treatment of ongoing conditions. Such infections or conditions can be but are not limited to viral infections. Thus, also disclosed are vectors, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a virus. The viral antigen is selected from the group of viruses consisting of Herpes simplex virus type-1, Herpes simplex virus type-2, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Varicella-zoster virus, Human herpesvirus 6, Human herpesvirus 7, Human herpesvirus 8, Variola virus, Vesicular stomatitis virus, Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis D virus, Hepatitis E virus, SARS, Rhinovirus, Coronavirus, Influenza virus A, Influenza virus B, Measles virus, Polyomavirus, Human Papilomavirus, Respiratory syncytial virus, Adenovirus, Coxsackie virus, Dengue virus, Mumps virus, Poliovirus, Rabies virus, Rous sarcoma virus, Yellow fever virus, Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Lassa fever virus, Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus, Japanese Encephalitis virus, St. Louis Encephalitis virus, Murray Valley fever virus, West Nile virus, Rift Valley fever virus, Rotavirus A, Rotavirus B, Rotavirus C, Sindbis virus, Simian Immunodeficiency virus, Human T-lymphotropic virus type-1, Human T-lymphotropic virus type-2, Primate T-lymphotropic virus, Hantavirus, Rubella virus, Simian Immunodeficiency virus, Human Immunodeficiency virus type-1, Human Immunodeficiency virus type-2, and Simian Immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Also disclosed are vectors, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is SIV-GAG. The art is replete with examples of viral antigens whose sequences and methods of obtaining them are well known.

Vaccinations are also known for the prevention of bacterial infections. Additionally, antibiotics are well-known in the art for the treatment of various bacterial infections. Herein contemplated and disclosed are vectors, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a bacterium. The bacterial antigen is selected from the group consisting of M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. bovis strain BCG, BCG substrains, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. africanum, M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. ulcerans, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Nocardia asteroides, other Nocardia species, Legionella pneumophila, other Legionella species, Salmonella typhi, other Salmonella species, Shigella species, Yersinia pestis, Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, other Pasteurella species, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Brucella abortus, other Brucella species, Cowdria ruminantium, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetti, other Rickettsial species, Ehrlichia species, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter species, Neiserria meningitidis, Neiserria gonorrhea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, other Pseudomonas species, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus ducreyi, other Hemophilus species, Clostridium tetani, other Clostridium species, Yersinia enterolitica, and other Yersinia species. The art is replete with examples of bacterial antigens whose sequences and methods of obtaining them are well known.

Vaccinations are also known for the prevention of fungal infections. Additionally, antibiotics are well-known in the art for the treatment of various fungal infections. Herein contemplated and disclosed are vectors, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a fungus. The fungal antigen can be selected from the group consisting of Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplama capsulatum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermitidis, Pneumocystis carinii, Penicillium marneffi, and Alternaria alternata

The vectors of the disclosure are not limited to fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Also disclosed are vectors, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a parasite. The parasitic antigen can be selected from the group consisting of Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, other Plasmodium species, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania major, other Leishmania species, Schistosoma mansoni, other Schistosoma species, and Entamoeba histolytica. The art is replete with examples of parasitic antigens whose sequences and methods of obtaining them are well known.

There are instances wherein it is advantageous to administer the vector of the disclosure in a pharmaceutical composition that comprises other vaccines. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising multiple vaccines can be for therapeutic or prophylactic purposes. Examples of such compositions include the mumps, measles, rubella (MMR) vaccine, and vaccines against M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. bovis strain BCG, BCG substrains, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. africanum, M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. ulcerans, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Nocardia asteroides, other Nocardia species, Legionella pneumophila, other Legionella species, Salmonella typhi, other Salmonella species, Shigella species, Yersinia pestis, Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, other Pasteurella species, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Brucella abortus, other Brucella species, Cowdria ruminantium, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetti, other Rickettsial species, Ehrlichia species, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter species, Neiserria meningitidis, Neiserria gonorrhea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, other Pseudomonas species, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus ducreyi, other Hemophilus species, Clostridium tetani, other Clostridium species, Yersinia enterolitica, and other Yersinia species. Specifically contemplated and disclosed are pharmaceutical compositions comprising the vector of the disclosure and one or more additional vaccines. Also disclosed are instances in which the vector comprises more than one antigen-encoding nucleic acid. In such a situation, the vector will produce each antigen encoded in the vector as a separate antigen.

There are instances in which a disclosed vector alone may not be suitable for a given purpose (e.g., a kit designed to screen potential drugs for the treatment of a condition, such kit intended for use in laboratories without the capabilities to transfect a cell-line with the vector). In such cases, cells previously transfected with the vector of the disclosure are needed. Thus, also disclosed are cells comprising the disclosed vectors.

In one embodiment, the antigen-encoding nucleic acid can encode a non-antigenic sequence of DNA. This sequence provides a functional copy of a disrupted, mutated, disregulated or deleted gene. Examples of nucleic acids encoding proteins that play a role in genetic disorders are known in the literature relating to genetic disorders. Methods of making these cells are described and exemplified herein and in the art.

The ability to detect the presence of a construct can be a desirable feature of any vector. As such, vectors often contain a marker to show that the construct of interest has been delivered to the subject (e.g., in a cell), and once delivered, is being expressed. A marker can take the form of a gene that is detectable when expressed. Thus, also disclosed are vectors further comprising a reporter gene. One example of a reporter gene is green fluorescence protein (GFP).

IV. Delivery of the Compositions to Cells

There are a number of compositions and methods which can be used to deliver nucleic acids to cells, either in vitro or in vivo. These methods and compositions can largely be broken down into two classes: viral based delivery systems and non-viral based delivery systems. For example, the nucleic acids can be delivered through a number of direct delivery systems, such as electroporation, lipofection, calcium phosphate precipitation, plasmids, viral vectors, viral nucleic acids, phage nucleic acids, phages, cosmids, or via transfer of genetic material in cells or carriers such as cationic liposomes. Appropriate means for transfection, including viral vectors, chemical transfectants, or physico-mechanical methods such as electroporation and direct diffusion of DNA, are described by, for example, Wolff, J. A., et al., Science, 247, 1465-1468, (1990); and Wolff, J. A. Nature, 352, 815-818, (1991). Such methods are well known in the art and readily adaptable for use with the compositions and methods described herein. In certain cases, the methods will be modified to specifically function with large DNA molecules. Further, these methods can be used to target certain diseases and cell populations by using the targeting characteristics of the carrier.

V. Nucleic Acid Based Delivery Systems

Transfer vectors can be any nucleotide construction used to deliver genes into cells (e.g., a plasmid), or as part of a general strategy to deliver genes (e.g., as part of recombinant retrovirus or adenovirus; Ram et al. Cancer Res. 53:83-88, (1993)).

As used herein, plasmid or viral vectors are agents that transport nucleic acids into the cell without degradation, and include a promoter yielding expression of the gene in the cells into which it is delivered. In some embodiments the vectors are derived from either a virus or specifically a retrovirus. Viral vectors can include for example, for example, HTLV-1, HTLV-2, HTLV-3, HTLV-4, Adenovirus, Adeno-associated virus, Herpes virus, Vaccinia virus, Polio virus, AIDS virus, neuronal trophic virus, Sindbis and other RNA viruses, including these viruses with the HIV backbone. Also preferred are any viral families which share the properties of these viruses which make them suitable for use as vectors. Retroviruses include Murine Maloney Leukemia virus, MMLV, and retroviruses that express the desirable properties of MMLV as a vector. Retroviral vectors are able to carry a larger genetic payload (e.g., a transgene or marker gene) than other viral vectors, and for this reason are commonly used vectors. However, they are not as useful in non-proliferating cells. Adenovirus vectors are relatively stable and easy to work with, have high titers, can be delivered in aerosol formulation, and can transfect non-dividing cells. Pox viral vectors are large, have several sites for inserting genes, are thermostable, and can be stored at room temperature. A preferred embodiment is a viral vector which has been engineered so as to suppress the immune response of the host organism, elicited by the viral antigens. Preferred vectors of this type will carry coding regions for Interleukin 8 or 10.

Viral vectors can have higher transaction (ability to introduce genes) abilities than chemical or physical methods to introduce genes into cells. Typically, viral vectors contain nonstructural early genes, structural late genes, an RNA polymerase III transcript, inverted terminal repeats necessary for replication and encapsidation, and promoters to control the transcription and replication of the viral genome. When engineered as vectors, viruses typically have one or more of the early genes removed and a gene or gene/promoter cassette is inserted into the viral genome in place of the removed viral DNA. Constructs of this type can carry up to about 8 kb of foreign genetic material. The necessary functions of the removed early genes are typically supplied by cell lines which have been engineered to express the gene products of the early genes in trans.

VI. Retroviral Vectors

Primate T-lymphotropic viruses are retroviruses. A retrovirus is an animal virus belonging to the virus family of Retroviridae, including any types, subfamilies, genus, or tropisms. Retroviral vectors, in general, are described by Verma, I. M., Retroviral vectors for gene transfer, In Microbiology-1985, American Society for Microbiology, pp. 229-232, Washington, (1985), which is incorporated by reference herein. Examples of methods for using retroviral vectors for gene therapy are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,868,116 and 4,980,286; PCT applications WO 90/02806 and WO 89/07136; and Mulligan, (Science 260:926-932 (1993)); the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. Although the present primate T-lymphotropic virus vector is unique, the methods described for using other types of viral vectors can be useful in certain contexts. See for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,646,032, which is incorporated herein for its teaching of those methods.

A retrovirus is essentially a package which has packed into it nucleic acid cargo. The nucleic acid cargo carries with it a packaging signal, which ensures that the replicated daughter molecules will be efficiently packaged within the package coat. In addition to the package signal, there are a number of molecules which are needed in cis, for the replication, and packaging of the replicated virus. Typically a retroviral genome contains the gag, pol, and env genes which are involved in the making of the protein coat. It is the gag, pol, and env genes which are typically replaced by the foreign DNA that is to be transferred to the target cell. Retrovirus vectors typically contain a packaging signal for incorporation into the package coat, a sequence which signals the start of the gag transcription unit, elements necessary for reverse transcription, including a primer binding site to bind the tRNA primer of reverse transcription, terminal repeat sequences that guide the switch of RNA strands during DNA synthesis, a purine rich sequence 5′ to the 3′ LTR that serves as the priming site for the synthesis of the second strand of DNA synthesis, and specific sequences near the ends of the LTRs that enable the insertion of the DNA state of the retrovirus to insert into the host genome. The removal of the gag, pol, and env genes allows for large fragments of foreign sequence to be inserted into the viral genome, become reverse transcribed, and upon replication, be packaged into a new retroviral particle. This amount of nucleic acid is sufficient for the delivery of many genes depending on the size of each transcript. It is preferable to include either positive or negative selectable markers along with other genes in the insert.

Since the replication machinery and packaging proteins in most retroviral vectors have been removed (gag, pol, and env), the vectors are typically generated by placing them into a packaging cell line. A packaging cell line is a cell line which has been transfected or transformed with a retrovirus that contains the replication and packaging machinery, but lacks any packaging signal. When the vector carrying the DNA of choice is transfected into these cell lines, the vector containing the gene of interest is replicated and packaged into new retroviral particles, by the machinery provided in cis by the helper cell. The genomes for the machinery are not packaged because they lack the necessary signals.

A packaging cell line is a cell line which has been transfected or transformed with a retrovirus that contains the replication and packaging machinery, but lacks any packaging signal. When the vector carrying the DNA of choice is transfected into these cell lines, the vector containing the gene of interest is replicated and packaged into new retroviral particles, by the machinery provided in cis by the helper cell. The genomes for the machinery are not packaged because they lack the necessary signals.

It is also understood that the pX region can be used to construct a vector. The pX region is located between the end of env and the beginning of Tax and contains small ORFs, hence this is another good region for insertion of foreign DNA in an HTLV genome based vector.

Disclosed are methods of detecting the expression of the disclosed vectors comprising using a first antibody to the antigen to measure protein expression in a quantitative or qualitative way, and further comprising detecting the first antibody directly via a calorimetric measurement produced through the use of a substrate and a conjugated antibody or indirectly via a first antibody to the antigen, which in turn is bound by a second antibody that is conjugated and will result in a calorimetric measurement when combined with a substrate.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the antigen is detected by placing an aliquot of the disclosed vector in a lane on a gel and probing the gel for the antigen.

Some methods are methods of detecting the expression of the disclosed vector using a fluorescently labeled first antibody specific for the antigen and visualizing the antigen using a flow cytometer, fluorescence microscope, or chemiluminescence. In some embodiments, the first antibody is not fluorescently labeled, but a target for a second antibody with a fluorescent label.

Also disclosed are methods of detecting the expression of a disclosed vector comprising using cytolytic killing assay to assess activity, and methods of detecting the vector that further include obtaining a sample from a subject comprising a tissue biopsy or removal of blood or bone marrow.

VII. Non-Nucleic Acid Based Systems

The disclosed compositions can be delivered to the target cells in a variety of ways. For example, the compositions can be delivered through electroporation, or through lipofection, or through calcium phosphate precipitation. The delivery mechanism chosen will depend in part on the type of cell targeted and whether the delivery is occurring for example in vivo or in vitro. In the methods described above which include the administration and uptake of exogenous DNA into the cells of a subject (e.g., gene transduction or transfection), delivery of the compositions to cells can be via a variety of mechanisms. As one example, delivery can be via a liposome, using commercially available liposome preparations such as LIPOFECTIN, LIPOFECTAMINE (GIBCO-BRL, Inc., Gaithersburg, Md.), SUPERFECT (Qiagen, Inc. Hilden, Germany) and TRANSFECTAM (Promega Biotec, Inc., Madison, Wis.), as well as other liposomes developed according to procedures standard in the art. In addition, the disclosed nucleic acid or vector can be delivered in vivo by electroporation, the technology for which is available from Genetronics, Inc. (San Diego, Calif.) as well as by means of a SONOPORATION machine (ImaRx Pharmaceutical Corp., Tucson, Ariz.).

The materials may be in solution or suspension (for example, incorporated into microparticles, liposomes, or cells). These may be targeted to a particular cell type via antibodies, receptors, or receptor ligands. The following references are examples of the use of this technology to target specific proteins to tumor tissue (Senter, et al., Bioconjugate Chem., 2:447-451, (1991); Bagshawe, K. D., Br. J. Cancer, 60:275-281, (1989); Bagshawe, et al., Br. J. Cancer, 58:700-703, (1988); Senter, et al., Bioconjugate Chem., 4:3-9, (1993); Battelli, et al., Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 35:421-425, (1992); Pietersz and McKenzie, Immunolog. Reviews, 129:57-80, (1992); and Roffler, et al., Biochem. Pharmacol, 42:2062-2065, (1991)). These techniques can be used for a variety of other specific cell types. Vehicles such as “stealth” and other antibody conjugated liposomes (including lipid mediated drug targeting to colonic carcinoma), receptor mediated targeting of DNA through cell specific ligands, lymphocyte directed tumor targeting, and highly specific therapeutic retroviral targeting of murine glioma cells in vivo. The following references are examples of the use of this technology to target specific proteins to tumor tissue (Hughes et al., Cancer Research, 49:6214-6220, (1989); and Litzinger and Huang, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1104:179-187, (1992)). In general, receptors are involved in pathways of endocytosis, either constitutive or ligand induced. These receptors cluster in clathrin-coated pits, enter the cell via clathrin-coated vesicles, pass through an acidified endosome in which the receptors are sorted, and then either recycle to the cell surface, become stored intracellularly, or are degraded in lysosomes. The internalization pathways serve a variety of functions, such as nutrient uptake, removal of activated proteins, clearance of macromolecules, opportunistic entry of viruses and toxins, dissociation and degradation of ligand, and receptor-level regulation. Many receptors follow more than one intracellular pathway, depending on the cell type, receptor concentration, type of ligand, ligand valency, and ligand concentration. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of receptor-mediated endocytosis has been reviewed (Brown and Greene, DNA and Cell Biology 10:6, 399-409 (1991)).

Nucleic acids that are delivered to cells which are to be integrated into the host cell genome, typically contain integration sequences. These sequences are often viral related sequences, particularly when viral based systems are used. These viral integration systems can also be incorporated into nucleic acids which are to be delivered using a non-nucleic acid based system of deliver, such as a liposome, so that the nucleic acid contained in the delivery system can be come integrated into the host genome.

Other general techniques for integration into the host genome include, for example, systems designed to promote homologous recombination with the host genome. These systems typically rely on sequence flanking the nucleic acid to be expressed that has enough homology with a target sequence within the host cell genome that recombination between the vector nucleic acid and the target nucleic acid takes place, causing the delivered nucleic acid to be integrated into the host genome. These systems and the methods necessary to promote homologous recombination are known to those of skill in the art.

VIII. In Vivo/Ex Vivo Methods

As described above, the compositions can be administered in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and can be delivered to the subject's cells in vivo and/or ex vivo by a variety of mechanisms well known in the art (e.g., uptake of naked DNA, liposome fusion, intramuscular injection of DNA via a gene gun, endocytosis and the like).

If ex vivo methods are employed, cells or tissues can be removed and maintained outside the body according to standard protocols well known in the art. The compositions can be introduced into the cells via any gene transfer mechanism, such as, for example, calcium phosphate mediated gene delivery, electroporation, microinjection or proteoliposomes. The transduced cells can then be infused (e.g., in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier) or homotopically transplanted back into the subject per standard methods for the cell or tissue type. Standard methods are known for transplantation or infusion of various cells into a subject.

IX. Expression Systems

The nucleic acids that are delivered to cells typically contain expression controlling systems. For example, the inserted genes in viral and retroviral systems usually contain promoters, and/or enhancers to help control the expression of the desired gene product. A promoter is generally a sequence or sequences of DNA that function when in a relatively fixed location in regard to the transcription start site. A promoter contains core elements required for basic interaction of RNA polymerase and transcription factors, and may contain upstream elements and response elements.

X. Viral Promoters and Enhancers

Preferred promoters controlling transcription from vectors in mammalian host cells may be obtained from various sources, for example, the genomes of viruses such as: polyoma, Simian Virus 40 (SV40), adenovirus, retroviruses, hepatitis-B virus and most preferably cytomegalovirus, or from heterologous mammalian promoters, e.g. beta actin promoter. The early and late promoters of the SV40 virus are conveniently obtained as an SV40 restriction fragment which also contains the SV40 viral origin of replication (Fiers et al., Nature, 273:113 (1978)). The immediate early promoter of the human cytomegalovirus is conveniently obtained as a HindIII E restriction fragment (Greenway et al., Gene 18:355-360 (1982)). Of course, promoters from the host cell or related species also are useful herein. Such preferred promoters are in the LTRs of HTLV.

Enhancer generally refers to a sequence of DNA that functions at no fixed distance from the transcription start site and can be either 5′ (Laimins et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 78:993 (1981)) or 3′ (Lusky et al., Mol. Cell. Bio. 3:1108 (1983)) to the transcription unit. Furthermore, enhancers can be within an intron (Banerji et al., Cell 33:729 (1983)), as well as within the coding sequence itself (Osborne et al., Mol. Cell. Bio. 4:1293 (1984)). They are usually between 10 and 300 bp in length, and they function in cis. Enhancers function to increase transcription from nearby promoters. Enhancers also often contain response elements that mediate the regulation of transcription. Promoters can also contain response elements that mediate the regulation of transcription. Enhancers often determine the regulation of expression of a gene. While many enhancer sequences are now known from mammalian genes (globin, elastase, albumin, fetoprotein and insulin), typically one will use an enhancer from a eukaryotic cell virus for general expression. Preferred examples are the SV40 enhancer on the late side of the replication origin (bp 100-270), the cytomegalovirus early promoter enhancer, the polyoma enhancer on the late side of the replication origin, and adenovirus enhancers.

The promotor and/or enhancer may be specifically activated, for instance by light or specific chemical events which trigger their function. Systems can be regulated by reagents such as tetracycline and dexamethasone. There are also ways to enhance viral vector gene expression by exposure to irradiation, such as gamma irradiation, or alkylating chemotherapy drugs.

In certain embodiments the promoter and/or enhancer region can act as a constitutive promoter and/or enhancer to maximize expression of the region of the transcription unit to be transcribed. In certain constructs the promoter and/or enhancer region be active in all eukaryotic cell types, even if it is only expressed in a particular type of cell at a particular time. A preferred promoter of this type is the CMV promoter (650 bases). Other preferred promoters are SV40 promoters, cytomegalovirus (full length promoter), and retroviral vector LTR.

It has been shown that all specific regulatory elements can be cloned and used to construct expression vectors that are selectively expressed in specific cell types such as melanoma cells. The glial fibrillary acetic protein (GFAP) promoter has been used to selectively express genes in cells of glial origin.

Expression vectors used in eukaryotic host cells (yeast, fungi, insect, plant, animal, human or nucleated cells) may also contain sequences necessary for the termination of transcription which may affect mRNA expression. These regions are transcribed as polyadenylated segments in the untranslated portion of the mRNA encoding tissue factor protein. The 3′ untranslated regions also include transcription termination sites. It is preferred that the transcription unit also contains a polyadenylation region. One benefit of this region is that it increases the likelihood that the transcribed unit will be processed and transported like mRNA. The identification and use of polyadenylation signals in expression constructs is well established. It is preferred that homologous polyadenylation signals be used in the transgene constructs. In certain transcription units, the polyadenylation region is derived from the SV40 early polyadenylation signal and consists of about 400 bases. It is also preferred that the transcribed units contain other standard sequences alone or in combination with the above sequences improve expression from, or stability of, the construct.

XI. Markers

The viral vectors can include nucleic acid sequence encoding a marker product. This marker product is used to determine if the gene has been delivered to the cell and once delivered is being expressed. Preferred marker genes are the E. Coli lacZ gene, which encodes β-galactosidase, and green fluorescent protein.

In some embodiments the marker is a selectable marker. Examples of suitable selectable markers for mammalian cells are dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), thymidine kinase, neomycin, neomycin analog G418, hydromycin, and puromycin. When such selectable markers are successfully transferred into a mammalian host cell, the transformed mammalian host cell can survive if placed under selective pressure. There are two widely used distinct categories of selective regimes. The first category is based on a cell's metabolism and the use of a mutant cell line which lacks the ability to grow independent of a supplemented media. Two examples are: CHO DHFR-cells and mouse LTK-cells. These cells lack the ability to grow without the addition of such nutrients as thymidine or hypoxanthine. Because these cells lack certain genes necessary for a complete nucleotide synthesis pathway, they cannot survive unless the missing nucleotides are provided in a supplemented media. An alternative to supplementing the media is to introduce an intact DHFR or TK gene into cells lacking the respective genes, thus altering their growth requirements. Individual cells which were not transformed with the DHFR or TK gene will not be capable of survival in non-supplemented media.

The second category is dominant selection which refers to a selection scheme used in any cell type and does not require the use of a mutant cell line. These schemes typically use a drug to arrest growth of a host cell. Those cells that have a novel gene would express a protein conveying drug resistance and would survive the selection. Examples of such dominant selection use the drugs neomycin, (Southern & Berg, J. Molec. Appl. Genet. 1:327 (1982)), mycophenolic acid, (Mulligan & Berg Science 209:1422 (1980)) or hygromycin, (Sugden et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:410-413 (1985)). The three examples employ bacterial genes under eukaryotic control to convey resistance to the appropriate drug G418 or neomycin (geneticin), xgpt (mycophenolic acid) or hygromycin, respectively. Others include the neomycin analog G418 and puramycin.

XII. Sequence Similarities

It is understood that as discussed herein the use of the terms homology and identity mean the same thing as similarity. Thus, for example, if the use of the word homology is used between two non-natural sequences it is understood that this is not necessarily indicating an evolutionary relationship between these two sequences, but rather is looking at the similarity or relatedness between their nucleic acid sequences. Many of the methods for determining homology between two evolutionarily related molecules are routinely applied to any two or more nucleic acids or proteins for the purpose of measuring sequence similarity regardless of whether they are evolutionarily related or not.

In general, it is understood that one way to define any known variants and derivatives or those that might arise, of the disclosed genes and proteins herein, is through defining the variants and derivatives in terms of homology to specific known sequences. This identity of particular sequences disclosed herein is also discussed elsewhere herein. In general, variants of genes and proteins herein disclosed typically have at least, about 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99 percent homology to the stated sequence or the native sequence. Those of skill in the art readily understand how to determine the homology of two proteins or nucleic acids, such as genes. For example, the homology can be calculated after aligning the two sequences so that the homology is at its highest level.

Another method of calculating homology can be performed by published algorithms. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison may be conducted by the local homology algorithm of Smith & Waterman Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman & Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson & Lipman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by inspection.

The same types of homology can be obtained for nucleic acids by for example the algorithms disclosed in Zuker Science 244:48-52, 1989, Jaeger et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7706-7710, 1989, and Jaeger et al. Methods Enzymol. 183:281-306, 1989, which are herein incorporated by reference for at least material related to nucleic acid alignment. It is understood that any of the methods typically can be used and that in certain instances the results of these various methods may differ, but the skilled artisan understands if identity is found with at least one of these methods, the sequences would be said to have the stated identity, and be disclosed herein.

For example, as used herein, a sequence recited as having a particular percent homology to another sequence refers to sequences that have the recited homology as calculated by any one or more of the calculation methods described above. For example, a first sequence has 80 percent homology, as defined herein, to a second sequence if the first sequence is calculated to have 80 percent homology to the second sequence using the Zuker calculation method even if the first sequence does not have 80 percent homology to the second sequence as calculated by any of the other calculation methods. As another example, a first sequence has 80 percent homology, as defined herein, to a second sequence if the first sequence is calculated to have 80 percent homology to the second sequence using both the Zuker calculation method and the Pearson and Lipman calculation method even if the first sequence does not have 80 percent homology to the second sequence as calculated by the Smith & Waterman calculation method, the Needleman & Wunsch calculation method, the Jaeger calculation methods, or any of the other calculation methods. As yet another example, a first sequence has 80 percent homology, as defined herein, to a second sequence if the first sequence is calculated to have 80 percent homology to the second sequence using each of calculation methods (although, in practice, the different calculation methods will often result in different calculated homology percentages).

XIII. Nucleic Acids

There are a variety of molecules disclosed herein that are nucleic acid based, including for example the nucleic acids that encode HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 (e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 36, 53, and 81). The disclosed nucleic acids are made up of, for example, nucleotides, nucleotide analogs, or nucleotide substitutes. Non-limiting examples of these and other molecules are discussed herein. It is understood that for example, when a vector is expressed in a cell, the expressed mRNA will typically be made up of A, C, G, and U. Likewise, it is understood that if, for example, an antisense molecule is introduced into a cell or cell environment through for example exogenous delivery, it is advantageous that the antisense molecule be made up of nucleotide analogs that reduce the degradation of the antisense molecule in the cellular environment.

XIV. Nucleotides and Related Molecules

A nucleotide is a molecule that contains a base moiety, a sugar moiety and a phosphate moiety. Nucleotides can be linked together through their phosphate moieties and sugar moieties creating an internucleoside linkage. The base moiety of a nucleotide can be adenin-9-yl (A), cytosin-1-yl (C), guanin-9-yl (G), uracil-1-yl (U), and thymin-1-yl (T). The sugar moiety of a nucleotide is a ribose or a deoxyribose. The phosphate moiety of a nucleotide is pentavalent phosphate. A non-limiting example of a nucleotide would be 3′-AMP (3′-adenosine monophosphate) or 5′-GMP (5′-guanosine monophosphate). There are many varieties of these types of molecules available in the art and available herein.

A nucleotide analog is a nucleotide which contains some type of modification to either the base, sugar, or phosphate moieties. Modifications to nucleotides are well known in the art and would include for example, 5-methylcytosine (5-me-C), 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, and 2-aminoadenine as well as modifications at the sugar or phosphate moieties. There are many varieties of these types of molecules available in the art and available herein.

Nucleotide substitutes are molecules having similar functional properties to nucleotides, but which do not contain a phosphate moiety, such as peptide nucleic acid (PNA). Nucleotide substitutes are molecules that will recognize nucleic acids in a Watson-Crick or Hoogsteen manner, but which are linked together through a moiety other than a phosphate moiety. Nucleotide substitutes are able to conform to a double helix type structure when interacting with the appropriate target nucleic acid. There are many varieties of these types of molecules available in the art and available herein.

It is also possible to link other types of molecules (conjugates) to nucleotides or nucleotide analogs to enhance for example, cellular uptake. Conjugates can be chemically linked to the nucleotide or nucleotide analogs. Such conjugates include but are not limited to lipid moieties such as a cholesterol moiety. (Letsinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1989, 86:6553-6556). There are many varieties of these types of molecules available in the art and available herein.

A Watson-Crick interaction is at least one interaction with the Watson-Crick face of a nucleotide, nucleotide analog, or nucleotide substitute. The Watson-Crick face of a nucleotide, nucleotide analog, or nucleotide substitute includes the C2, N1, and C6 positions of a purine based nucleotide, nucleotide analog, or nucleotide substitute and the C2, N3, C4 positions of a pyrimidine based nucleotide, nucleotide analog, or nucleotide substitute.

A Hoogsteen interaction is the interaction that takes place on the Hoogsteen face of a nucleotide or nucleotide analog, which is exposed in the major groove of duplex DNA. The Hoogsteen face includes the N7 position and reactive groups (NH2 or O) at the C6 position of purine nucleotides.

XV. Sequences

There are a variety of sequences related to the protein molecules, for example the protein coding regions gag, pol, env, tax, rex, and protease (pro) genes and noncoding regions such as the LTR of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, or any of the nucleic acids disclosed herein for making HTLV-3 or HTLV-4, all of which are encoded by nucleic acids or are nucleic acids. The sequences for the human analogs of these genes, as well as other analogs, and alleles of these genes, and splice variants and other types of variants, are available in a variety of protein and gene databases, including GenBank. Those sequences available at the time of filing this application at GenBank are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties as well as for individual subsequences contained therein. GenBank can be accessed at http://www.ncbi.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi. Those of skill in the art understand how to resolve sequence discrepancies and differences and to adjust the compositions and methods relating to a particular sequence to other related sequences. Primers and/or probes can be designed for any given sequence given the information disclosed herein and known in the art.

XVI. Primers and Probes

Disclosed are compositions including primers and probes, which are capable of interacting with the disclosed nucleic acids, such as the HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 as disclosed herein. In certain embodiments the primers are used to support nucleic acid (DNA, RNA, etc.) amplification reactions. Thus, for example, disclosed herein are primers wherein the primer comprises SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, SEQ ID NOs: 11 and 12, SEQ ID NOs: 15 and 16, SEQ ID NOs: 23 and 24, SEQ ID NOs: 27 and 28, SEQ ID NOs: 31 and 32, SEQ ID NOs: 69 and 70, SEQ ID NOs: 73 and 74, SEQ ID NOs: 77 and 78, SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, SEQ ID NOs: 13 and 14, SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 18, SEQ ID NOs: 25 and 26, SEQ ID NOs: 29 and 30, SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, SEQ ID NOs: 64 and 65, SEQ ID NOs: 71 and 72, SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, and SEQ ID NOs: 79 and 80. Typically the primers will be capable of being extended in a sequence specific manner. Extension of a primer in a sequence specific manner includes any methods wherein the sequence and/or composition of the nucleic acid molecule to which the primer is hybridized or otherwise associated directs or influences the composition or sequence of the product produced by the extension of the primer. Extension of the primer in a sequence specific manner therefore includes, but is not limited to, PCR, DNA sequencing, DNA extension, DNA polymerization, RNA transcription, or reverse transcription. Techniques and conditions that amplify the primer in a sequence specific manner are preferred. In certain embodiments the primers are used for the DNA amplification reactions, such as PCR or direct sequencing. Thus, herein are disclosed primer pairs used in conjunction with a second nested set of primers pairs. For example, disclosed herein are PCR amplification methods comprising a first primer pair and a second primer pair, wherein the second primer pair is internal to the first primer pair and wherein the first primer pair is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, SEQ ID NOs: 11 and 12, SEQ ID NOs: 15 and 16, SEQ ID NOs: 23 and 24, SEQ ID NOs: 27 and 28, SEQ ID NOs: 31 and 32, SEQ ID NOs: 69 and 70, SEQ ID NOs: 73 and 74, and SEQ ID NOs: 77 and 78, wherein the second set of primers is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, SEQ ID NOs: 13 and 14, SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 18, SEQ ID NOs: 25 and 26, SEQ ID NOs: 29 and 30, SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, SEQ ID NOs: 71 and 72, SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, and SEQ ID NOs: 79 and 80. It is understood that in certain embodiments the primers can also be extended using non-enzymatic techniques, where for example, the nucleotides or oligonucleotides used to extend the primer are modified such that they will chemically react to extend the primer in a sequence specific manner. Typically, the disclosed primers hybridize with the disclosed nucleic acids or region of the nucleic acids or they hybridize with the complement of the nucleic acids or complement of a region of the nucleic acids.

XVII. Functional Nucleic Acids

Functional nucleic acids are nucleic acid molecules that have a specific function, such as binding a target molecule or catalyzing a specific reaction. Functional nucleic acid molecules can be divided into the following categories, which are not meant to be limiting. For example, functional nucleic acids include antisense molecules, aptamers, ribozymes, triplex forming molecules, and external guide sequences. The functional nucleic acid molecules can act as effectors, inhibitors, modulators, and stimulators of a specific activity possessed by a target molecule, or the functional nucleic acid molecules can possess a de novo activity independent of any other molecules.

Functional nucleic acid molecules can interact with any macromolecule, such as DNA, RNA, polypeptides, or carbohydrate chains. Thus, functional nucleic acids can interact with the mRNA of any of the disclosed nucleic acids, such as the pol, tax, env, gag, rex and pro genes and non-coding regions such as the LTR of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, or the nucleic acids used for the generation of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, or the genomic DNA of any of the disclosed viruses, such as HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, or they can interact with the polypeptide encoded by any of the disclosed nucleic acids, such as pol, tax, rex, env, gag, or pro genes of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4, or the nucleic acids used for the generation of pol, tax, rex, env, gag, or LTR proteins of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4. Often functional nucleic acids are designed to interact with other nucleic acids based on sequence homology between the target molecule and the functional nucleic acid molecule. In other situations, the specific recognition between the functional nucleic acid molecule and the target molecule is not based on sequence homology between the functional nucleic acid molecule and the target molecule, but rather is based on the formation of tertiary structure that allows specific recognition to take place.

XVIII. Protein Variants

As discussed herein, there are numerous disclosed variants of the HTLV-3 proteins encoded herein, such as gag (SEQ ID NO: 40), pol (SEQ ID NO: 44), env (SEQ ID NO: 37), tax (SEQ ID NO: 50), rex (SEQ ID NO: 48), protease (SEQ ID NO: 46), and non-coding regions such as the LTR, and HTLV-4 proteins encoded herein, such as gag, pol (SEQ ID NO: 57), env (SEQ ID NO: 54), tax (SEQ ID NO: 62), rex (SEQ ID NO: 60), protease (SEQ ID NO: 58) and non-coding regions such as the LTR. In addition, to the known functional HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 strain variants there are derivatives of the HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 gag, pol, tax, rex, and env, LTR proteins that also function in the disclosed methods and compositions. Protein variants and derivatives are well understood to those of skill in the art and in can involve amino acid sequence modifications. For example, amino acid sequence modifications typically fall into one or more of three classes: substitutional, insertional or deletional variants. Insertions include amino and/or carboxyl terminal fusions as well as intrasequence insertions of single or multiple amino acid residues. Insertions ordinarily will be smaller insertions than those of amino or carboxyl terminal fusions, for example, on the order of one to four residues. Immunogenic fusion protein derivatives, such as those described in the examples, are made by fusing a polypeptide sufficiently large to confer immunogenicity to the target sequence by cross-linking in vitro or by recombinant cell culture transformed with DNA encoding the fusion. Deletions are characterized by the removal of one or more amino acid residues from the protein sequence. Typically, no more than about from 2 to 6 residues are deleted at any one site within the protein molecule. These variants ordinarily are prepared by site specific mutagenesis of nucleotides in the DNA encoding the protein, thereby producing DNA encoding the variant, and thereafter expressing the DNA in recombinant cell culture. Techniques for making substitution mutations at predetermined sites in DNA having a known sequence are well known, for example M13 primer mutagenesis and PCR mutagenesis. Amino acid substitutions are typically of single residues, but can occur at a number of different locations at once; insertions usually will be on the order of about from 1 to 10 amino acid residues; and deletions will range about from 1 to 30 residues. Deletions or insertions preferably are made in adjacent pairs, e.g., a deletion of 2 residues or insertion of 2 residues. Substitutions, deletions, insertions or any combination thereof may be combined to arrive at a final construct. The mutations must not place the sequence out of reading frame and preferably will not create complementary regions that could produce secondary mRNA structure. Substitutional variants are those in which at least one residue has been removed and a different residue inserted in its place. Such substitutions generally are made in accordance with the following Tables 1 and 2 and are referred to as conservative substitutions.

TABLE 1 Amino Acid Abbreviations Amino Acid Abbreviation alanine Ala A allosoleucine AIle arginine Arg R asparagine Asn N aspartic acid Asp D cysteine Cys C glutamic acid Glu E glutamine Gln K glycine Gly G histidine His H isolelucine Ile I leucine Leu L lysine Lys K phenylalanine Phe F proline Pro P pyroglutamic acid Glu serine Ser S threonine Thr T tyrosine Tyr Y tryptophan Trp W valine Val V

TABLE 2 Amino Acid Substitutions Original Residue & Exemplary Conservative Substitutions (others are known in the art) Ala, ser Arg, lys, gln Asn, gln, his Asp, glu Cys, ser Gln, asn, lys Glu, asp Gly, pro His, asn, gln Ile, leu, val Leu, ile, val Lys, arg, gln, Met, Leu, ile Phe, met, leu, tyr Ser, thr Thr, ser Trp, tyr Tyr, trp, phe Val, ile, leu

Substantial changes in function or immunological identity are made by selecting substitutions that are less conservative than those in Table 2, e.g., selecting residues that differ more significantly in their effect on maintaining (a) the structure of the polypeptide backbone in the area of the substitution, for example as a sheet or helical conformation, (b) the charge or hydrophobicity of the molecule at the target site or (c) the bulk of the side chain. The substitutions which in general are expected to produce the greatest changes in the protein properties will be those in which (a) a hydrophilic residue, e.g. seryl or threonyl, is substituted for (or by) a hydrophobic residue, e.g. leucyl, isoleucyl, phenylalanyl, valyl or alanyl; (b) a cysteine or proline is substituted for (or by) any other residue; (c) a residue having an electropositive side chain, e.g., lysyl, arginyl, or histidyl, is substituted for (or by) an electronegative residue, e.g., glutamyl or aspartyl; or (d) a residue having a bulky side chain, e.g., phenylalanine, is substituted for (or by) one not having a side chain, e.g., glycine, in this case, (e) by increasing the number of sites for sulfation and/or glycosylation.

For example, the replacement of one amino acid residue with another that is biologically and/or chemically similar is known to those skilled in the art as a conservative substitution. For example, a conservative substitution would be replacing one hydrophobic residue with another, or one polar residue with another. The substitutions include combinations such as, for example, Gly, Ala; Val, Ile, Leu; Asp, Glu; Asn, Gln; Ser, Thr; Lys, Arg; and Phe, Tyr. Such conservatively substituted variations of each explicitly disclosed sequence are included within the mosaic polypeptides provided herein.

Substitutional or deletional mutagenesis can be employed to insert sites for N-glycosylation (Asn-X-Thr/Ser) or O-glycosylation (Ser or Thr). Deletions of cysteine or other labile residues also may be desirable. Deletions or substitutions of potential proteolysis sites, e.g. Arg, is accomplished for example by deleting one of the basic residues or substituting one by glutaminyl or histidyl residues.

Certain post-translational derivatizations are the result of the action of recombinant host cells on the expressed polypeptide. Glutaminyl and asparaginyl residues are frequently post-translationally deamidated to the corresponding glutamyl and asparyl residues. Alternatively, these residues are deamidated under mildly acidic conditions. Other post-translational modifications include hydroxylation of proline and lysine, phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups of seryl or threonyl residues, methylation of the o-amino groups of lysine, arginine, and histidine side chains (T. E. Creighton, Proteins: Structure and Molecular Properties, W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco pp 79-86 [1983]), acetylation of the N-terminal amine and, in some instances, amidation of the C-terminal carboxyl.

It is understood that one way to define the variants and derivatives of the disclosed proteins herein is through defining the variants and derivatives in terms of homology/identity to specific known sequences. For example, SEQ ID NO: 1 sets forth a particular sequence of HTLV-3 pol protein and SEQ ID NO: 2 sets forth a particular sequence of a HTLV-4 pol protein. Specifically disclosed are variants of these and other proteins herein disclosed which have at least, 70% or 75% or 80% or 85% or 90% or 95% homology or any amount of homology in between to the stated sequence. Those of skill in the art readily understand how to determine the homology of two proteins. For example, the homology can be calculated after aligning the two sequences so that the homology is at its highest level.

Another way of calculating homology can be performed by published algorithms. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison may be conducted by the local homology algorithm of Smith and Waterman Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson and Lipman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by inspection.

The same types of homology can be obtained for nucleic acids by for example the algorithms disclosed in Zuker, M. Science 244:48-52, 1989, Jaeger et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7706-7710, 1989, Jaeger et al. Methods Enzymol. 183:281-306, 1989 which are herein incorporated by reference for at least material related to nucleic acid alignment.

It is understood that the description of conservative mutations and homology can be combined together in any combination, such as embodiments that have at least 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 95%, 97% or more homology to a particular sequence wherein the variants are conservative mutations.

As this specification discusses various proteins and protein sequences it is understood that the nucleic acids that can encode those protein sequences are also disclosed. This would include all degenerate sequences related to a specific protein sequence, e.g. all nucleic acids having a sequence that encodes one particular protein sequence as well as all nucleic acids, including degenerate nucleic acids, encoding the disclosed variants and derivatives of the protein sequences. Thus, while each particular nucleic acid sequence may not be written out herein, it is understood that each and every sequence is in fact disclosed and described herein through the disclosed protein sequence. For example, one of the many nucleic acid sequences that can encode the protein sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 44 is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1. In addition, for example, disclosed are conservative derivatives of SEQ ID NO: 44.

It is understood that there are numerous amino acid and peptide analogs which can be incorporated into the disclosed compositions. For example, there are numerous D amino acids or amino acids which have a different functional substituent then the amino acids shown in Table 1 and Table 2. The opposite stereo isomers of naturally occurring peptides are disclosed, as well as the stereo isomers of peptide analogs. These amino acids can readily be incorporated into polypeptide chains by charging tRNA molecules with the amino acid of choice and engineering genetic constructs that utilize, for example, amber codons, to insert the analog amino acid into a peptide chain in a site specific way (Thorson et al., Methods in Molec. Biol. 77:43-73 (1991), Zoller, Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 3:348-354 (1992); Ibba, Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering Reviews 13:197-216 (1995), Cahill et al., TIBS, 14(10):400-403 (1989); Benner, TIB Tech, 12:158-163 (1994); Ibba and Hennecke, Bio/technology, 12:678-682 (1994) all of which are herein incorporated by reference at least for material related to amino acid analogs).

Molecules can be produced that resemble peptides, but which are not connected via a natural peptide linkage. For example, linkages for amino acids or amino acid analogs can include CH₂NH—, —CH₂S—, —CH₂—CH₂—, —CH═CH—(cis and trans), —COCH₂—, —CH(OH)CH₂—, and —CHH₂SO—. (These and others can be found in Spatola in Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins, B. Weinstein, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 267 (1983); Spatola, Vega Data (March 1983), Vol. 1, Issue 3, Peptide Backbone Modifications (general review); Morley, Trends Pharm Sci (1980) pp. 463-468; Hudson et al., Int J Pept Prot Res 14:177-185 (1979) (—CH₂NH—, CH₂CH₂—); Spatola et al. Life Sci 38:1243-1249 (1986) (—CHH₂—S); Hann J. Chem. Soc Perkin Trans. I 307-314 (1982) (—CH—CH—, cis and trans); Almquist et al. J. Med. Chem. 23:1392-1398 (1980) (—COCH₂—); Jennings-White et al. Tetrahedron Lett 23:2533 (1982) (—COCH₂—); Szelke et al. European Appln, EP 45665 CA (1982): 97:39405 (1982) (—CH(OH)CH₂—); Holladay et al. Tetrahedron. Lett 24:4401-4404 (1983) (—C(OH)CH₂—); and Hruby Life Sci 31:189-199 (1982) (—CH₂—S—); each of which is incorporated herein by reference. A particularly preferred non-peptide linkage is —CH₂NH—. It is understood that peptide analogs can have more than one atom between the bond atoms, such as b-alanine, g-aminobutyric acid, and the like.

Amino acid analogs and analogs and peptide analogs often have enhanced or desirable properties, such as, more economical production, greater chemical stability, enhanced pharmacological properties (half-life, absorption, potency, efficacy, etc.), altered specificity (e.g., a broad-spectrum of biological activities), reduced antigenicity, and others.

D-amino acids can be used to generate more stable peptides, because D amino acids are not recognized by peptidases and such. Systematic substitution of one or more amino acids of a consensus sequence with a D-amino acid of the same type (e.g., D-lysine in place of L-lysine) can be used to generate more stable peptides. Cysteine residues can be used to cyclize or attach two or more peptides together. This can be beneficial to constrain peptides into particular conformations. (Rizo and Gierasch Ann. Rev. Biochem. 61:387 (1992), incorporated herein by reference).

XIX. Pharmaceutical Carriers/Delivery of Pharmaceutical Products

As described above, the compositions can be administered in vivo in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. By “pharmaceutically acceptable” is meant a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable, e.g., the material may be administered to a subject, along with the nucleic acid or vector, without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of the pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained. The carrier would naturally be selected to minimize any degradation of the active ingredient and to minimize any adverse side effects in the subject, as would be well known to one of skill in the art.

The compositions may be administered orally, parenterally (e.g., intravenously), by intramuscular injection, by intraperitoneal injection, transdermally, extracorporeally, topically or the like, including topical intranasal administration or administration by inhalant. As used herein, “topical intranasal administration” means delivery of the compositions into the nose and nasal passages through one or both of the nares and can comprise delivery by a spraying mechanism or droplet mechanism, or through aerosolization of the nucleic acid or vector. Administration of the compositions by inhalant can be through the nose or mouth via delivery by a spraying or droplet mechanism. Delivery can also be directly to any area of the respiratory system (e.g., lungs) via intubation. The exact amount of the compositions required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, weight and general condition of the subject, the severity of the allergic disorder being treated, the particular nucleic acid or vector used, its mode of administration and the like. Thus, it is not possible to specify an exact amount for every composition. However, an appropriate amount can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation given the teachings herein.

Parenteral administration of the composition, if used, is generally characterized by injection. Injectables can be prepared in conventional forms, either as liquid solutions or suspensions, solid forms suitable for solution of suspension in liquid prior to injection, or as emulsions. A more recently revised approach for parenteral administration involves use of a slow release or sustained release system such that a constant dosage is maintained. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 3,610,795, which is incorporated by reference herein.

The materials may be in solution, suspension (for example, incorporated into microparticles, liposomes, or cells). These may be targeted to a particular cell type via antibodies, receptors, or receptor ligands. The following references are examples of the use of this technology to target specific proteins to tumor tissue (Senter et al., Bioconjugate Chem., 2:447-451, (1991); Bagshawe Br. J. Cancer, 60:275-281, (1989); Bagshawe et al., Br. J. Cancer, 58:700-703, (1988); Senter et al., Bioconjugate Chem., 4:3-9, (1993); Battelli et al., Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 35:421-425, (1992); Pietersz and McKenzie, Immunolog. Reviews, 129:57-80, (1992); and Roffler, et al., Biochem. Pharmacol, 42:2062-2065, (1991)). Vehicles such as “stealth” and other antibody conjugated liposomes (including lipid mediated drug targeting to colonic carcinoma), receptor mediated targeting of DNA through cell specific ligands, lymphocyte directed tumor targeting, and highly specific therapeutic retroviral targeting of murine glioma cells in vivo. The following references are examples of the use of this technology to target specific proteins to tumor tissue (Hughes et al., Cancer Research, 49:6214-6220, (1989); and Litzinger and Huang, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1104:179-187, (1992)). In general, receptors are involved in pathways of endocytosis, either constitutive or ligand induced. These receptors cluster in clathrin-coated pits, enter the cell via clathrin-coated vesicles, pass through an acidified endosome in which the receptors are sorted, and then either recycle to the cell surface, become stored intracellularly, or are degraded in lysosomes. The internalization pathways serve a variety of functions, such as nutrient uptake, removal of activated proteins, clearance of macromolecules, opportunistic entry of viruses and toxins, dissociation and degradation of ligand, and receptor-level regulation. Many receptors follow more than one intracellular pathway, depending on the cell type, receptor concentration, type of ligand, ligand valency, and ligand concentration. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of receptor-mediated endocytosis has been reviewed (Brown and Greene, DNA and Cell Biology 10:6, 399-409 (1991)).

XX. Pharmaceutically Acceptable Carriers

The compositions, including antibodies, can be used therapeutically in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Suitable carriers and their formulations are described in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (19th ed.) ed. A. R. Gennaro, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. 1995. Typically, an appropriate amount of a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt is used in the formulation to render the formulation isotonic. Examples of the pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier include, but are not limited to, saline, Ringer's solution and dextrose solution. The pH of the solution is preferably from about 5 to about 8, and more preferably from about 7 to about 7.5. Further carriers include sustained release preparations such as semipermeable matrices of solid hydrophobic polymers containing the antibody, which matrices are in the form of shaped articles, e.g., films, liposomes or microparticles. It will be apparent to those persons skilled in the art that certain carriers may be more preferable, depending upon, for instance, the route of administration and concentration of composition being administered.

Pharmaceutical carriers are known to those skilled in the art. These most typically would be standard carriers for administration of drugs to humans, including solutions such as sterile water, saline, and buffered solutions at physiological pH. The compositions can be administered intramuscularly or subcutaneously. Other compounds will be administered according to standard procedures used by those skilled in the art.

Pharmaceutical compositions may include carriers, thickeners, diluents, buffers, preservatives, surface active agents and the like in addition to the molecule of choice. Pharmaceutical compositions may also include one or more active ingredients such as antimicrobial agents, antiinflammatory agents, anesthetics, and the like.

The pharmaceutical composition may be administered in a number of ways depending on whether local or systemic treatment is desired, and on the area to be treated. Administration may be topically (including ophthalmically, vaginally, rectally, intranasally), orally, by inhalation, or parenterally, for example by intravenous drip, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal or intramuscular injection. The disclosed antibodies can be administered intravenously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, intracavity, or transdermally.

Preparations for parenteral administration include sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, including saline and buffered media. Parenteral vehicles include sodium chloride solution, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer's, or fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers (such as those based on Ringer's dextrose), and the like. Preservatives and other additives may also be present such as, for example, antimicrobials, anti-oxidants, chelating agents, and inert gases and the like.

Formulations for topical administration may include ointments, lotions, creams, gels, drops, suppositories, sprays, liquids and powders. Conventional pharmaceutical carriers, aqueous, powder or oily bases, thickeners and the like may be necessary or desirable.

Compositions for oral administration include powders or granules, suspensions or solutions in water or non-aqueous media, capsules, sachets, or tablets. Thickeners, flavorings, diluents, emulsifiers, dispersing aids or binders may be desirable.

Some of the compositions may potentially be administered as a pharmaceutically acceptable acid- or base-addition salt, formed by reaction with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, perchloric acid, nitric acid, thiocyanic acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid, and organic acids such as formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, and fumaric acid, or by reaction with an inorganic base such as sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and organic bases such as mono-, di-, trialkyl and aryl amines and substituted ethanolamines.

XXI. Therapeutic Uses

Effective dosages and schedules for administering the compositions may be determined empirically, and making such determinations is within the skill in the art. The dosage ranges for the administration of the compositions are those large enough to produce the desired therapeutic or prophylactic effect. The dosage should not be so large as to cause adverse side effects, such as unwanted cross-reactions, anaphylactic reactions, and the like. Generally, the dosage will vary with the age, condition, sex and extent of the disease in the patient, route of administration, or whether other drugs are included in the regimen, and can be determined by one of skill in the art. The dosage can be adjusted by the individual physician in the event of any counterindications. Dosage can vary, and can be administered in one or more dose administrations daily, for one or several days. Guidance can be found in the literature for appropriate dosages for given classes of pharmaceutical products. For example, guidance in selecting appropriate doses for antibodies can be found in the literature on therapeutic uses of antibodies, e.g., Handbook of Monoclonal Antibodies, Ferrone et al., eds., Noges Publications, Park Ridge, N.J., (1985) ch. 22 and pp. 303-357; Smith et al., Antibodies in Human Diagnosis and Therapy, Haber et al., eds., Raven Press, New York (1977) pp. 365-389. A typical daily dosage of the antibody used alone might range from about 1 μg/kg to up to 100 mg/kg of body weight or more per day, depending on the factors mentioned above.

Following administration of a disclosed composition, such as an antibody, for treating, inhibiting, or preventing an HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 infection, the efficacy of the therapeutic antibody can be assessed in various ways well known to the skilled practitioner. For instance, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that a composition, such as an antibody disclosed herein, is efficacious in treating or inhibiting an HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 infection in a subject by observing that the composition reduces viral load or prevents a further increase in HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 viral load. Techniques used to measure the response of HTLV-3 or HTLV-4-infected subject to treatment with an antibody include determining whether the treatment partially or completely inhibits the appearance of the virus in the blood or other body fluid.

Other molecules that interact with HTLV-3 or HLV-4 (or the proteins encoded by those virus nucleic aid sequences) can be used that do not have a specific pharmaceutical function, but which may be used for tracking changes within cellular chromosomes or for the delivery of diagnostic tools, for example can be delivered in ways similar to those described for the pharmaceutical products. The disclosed compositions and methods can also be used, for example, as tools to isolate and test new drug candidates for a variety of primate T-lymphotropic virus related diseases.

XXII. Treatment and Prevention Methods

By “treating” is meant an improvement in or abatement of the disease state (e.g., viral infection, bacterial infection, parasitic infection, cancer, genetic disorder, or autoimmune disease) is observed and/or detected upon or after administration of a substance of the present disclosure to a subject. Treatment can range from a positive change in a symptom or symptoms of the disease to complete amelioration of the disease (e.g., viral infection, bacterial infection, parasitic infection, or cancer) (e.g., reduction in severity, intensity, or duration of disease, alteration of clinical parameters indicative of the subject's condition, relief of discomfort or increased or enhanced function), as detected by art-known techniques. The methods of the present disclosure can be utilized, for instance, to prevent or treat a viral infection, bacterial infection, parasitic infection, or cancer. One of skill in the art would recognize that this viral infection, bacterial infection, parasitic infection, or cancer can include conditions characterized by the presence of a foreign pathogen or abnormal cell growth. Clinical symptoms will depend on the particular condition and are easily recognizable by those skilled in the art of treating the specific condition. Treatment methods can include, but are not limited to therapeutic vaccinations. Thus, disclosed are methods of treating a subject with a condition comprising administering to the vector or other composition disclosed herein.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the condition being treated or prevented is a viral infection. The viral infection can be selected from the list of viruses consisting of Herpes simplex virus type-1, Herpes simplex virus type-2, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Varicella-zoster virus, Human herpesvirus 6, Human herpesvirus 7, Human herpesvirus 8, Variola virus, Vesicular stomatitis virus, Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis D virus, Hepatitis E virus, Rhinovirus, SARS, Coronavirus, Influenza virus A, Influenza virus B, Measles virus, Polyomavirus, Human Papilomavirus, Respiratory syncytial virus, Adenovirus, Coxsackie virus, Dengue virus, Mumps virus, Poliovirus, Rabies virus, Rous sarcoma virus, Yellow fever virus, Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Lassa fever virus, Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus, Japanese Encephalitis virus, St. Louis Encephalitis virus, Murray Valley fever virus, West Nile virus, Rift Valley fever virus, Rotavirus A, Rotavirus B, Rotavirus C, Sindbis virus, Simian Immunodeficiency virus, Human T-lymphotropic virus type-1, Human T-lymphotropic virus type-2, Primate T-lymphotropic virus, Hantavirus, Rubella virus, Simian Immunodeficiency virus, Human Immunodeficiency virus type-1, and Human Immunodeficiency virus type-2.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the condition being treated or prevented is a bacterial infection. The bacterial infection can be selected from the list of bacterium consisting of M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. bovis strain BCG, BCG substrains, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. africanum, M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. ulcerans, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Nocardia asteroides, other Nocardia species, Legionella pneumophila, other Legionella species, Salmonella typhi, other Salmonella species, Shigella species, Yersinia pestis, Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, other Pasteurella species, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Brucella abortus, other Brucella species, Cowdria ruminantium, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetti, other Rickettsial species, Ehrlichia species, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter species, Neiserria meningitidis, Neiserria gonorrhea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, other Pseudomonas species, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus ducreyi, other Hemophilus species, Clostridium tetani, other Clostridium species, Yersinia enterolitica, and other Yersinia species.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a bacterium. The bacterial antigen can be selected from the group consisting of M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. bovis strain BCG, BCG substrains, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. africanum, M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. ulcerans, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Nocardia asteroides, other Nocardia species, Legionella pneumophila, other Legionella species, Salmonella typhi, other Salmonella species, Shigella species, Yersinia pestis, Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, other Pasteurella species, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Brucella abortus, other Brucella species, Cowdria ruminantium, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetti, other Rickettsial species, Ehrlichia species, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter species, Neiserria meningitidis, Neiserria gonorrhea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, other Pseudomonas species, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus ducreyi, other Hemophilus species, Clostridium tetani, other Clostridium species, Yersinia enterolitica, and other Yersinia species.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the condition being treated or prevented is a fungal infection. The fungal infection can be selected from the list of fungus consisting of Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplama capsulatum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermitidis, Pneumocystis carinii, Penicillium marneffi, and Alternaria alternatas.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the condition being treated is a parasitic infection. The parasitic infection can be selected from the list of parasites consisting of Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, other Plasmodium species, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania major, other Leishmania species, Schistosoma mansoni, other Schistosoma species, and Entamoeba histolytica.

In addition, the disclosed vectors and vector containing compositions can be used to treat any disease where uncontrolled cellular proliferation occurs, such as a cancer. A non-limiting list of different types of cancers that can be treated with the disclosed compositions is as follows: lymphomas (including Hodgkins and non-Hodgkins, B cell lymphoma, and T cell lymphoma), mycosis fungoides, leukemias (including myeloid leukemia), carcinomas, carcinomas of solid tissues, squamous cell carcinomas, adenocarcinomas, sarcomas, gliomas, high grade gliomas, bladder cancer, brain cancer, nervous system cancer, head and neck cancer, blastomas, neuroblastomas, plasmacytomas, histiocytomas, melanomas, adenomas, hypoxic tumors, myelomas, AIDS-related lymphomas or sarcomas, kidney cancer, lung cancers such as small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma/glioblastoma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer, liver cancer, melanoma, squamous cell carcinomas of the mouth, throat, larynx, and lung, large bowel cancer, hematopoietic cancers; testicular cancer; colon and rectal cancers, prostatic cancer, or pancreatic cancer, cervical cancer, cervical carcinoma, breast cancer, and epithelial cancer, renal cancer, genitourinary cancer, pulmonary cancer, esophageal carcinoma, metastatic cancers, or cancers in general.

Also disclosed are methods wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is a tumor antigen. The tumor antigen can be selected from the list consisting of human epithelial cell mucin (Muc-1; a 20 amino acid core repeat for Muc-1 glycoprotein, present on breast cancer cells and pancreatic cancer cells), the Ha-ras oncogene product, p53, carcino-embryonic antigen (CEA), the raf oncogene product, gp100/pmel17, GD2, GD3, GM2, TF, sTn, MAGE-1, MAGE-3, BAGE, GAGE, tyrosinase, gp75, Melan-A/Mart-1, gp100, HER2/neu, EBV-LMP 1 & 2, HPV-F4, 6, 7, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), HPV-16, MUM, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), CO17-1A, GA733, gp72, p53, the ras oncogene product, HPV E7, Wilm's tumor antigen-1, telomerase, and melanoma gangliosides.

Disclosed are methods of treating a condition in a subject comprising administering to the subject the vector of the disclosure, wherein the condition is due to a mutated, disregulated, disrupted, or deleted gene; autoimmunity; or inflammatory diseases, including but not limited to cystic fibrosis, asthma, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, diabetes, tay-sachs, spinobifida, cerebral palsy, parkinson's disease, Lou Gehrig's disease, alzheimer's, systemic lupus erythamatosis, hemophelia, Addsion's disease, Cushing's disease.

By “preventing” is meant that after administration of a substance of the present disclosure to a subject, the subject does not develop the symptoms of the viral, bacterial, or parasitic infection, and/or does not develop the viral, bacterial, or parasitic infection. “Preventing” or “prevention” can also refer to the ultimate reduction of an infection, condition, or symptoms of an infection, or condition relative to infections or conditions in subjects that do not receive the substance. Methods of prevention can include, but are not limited to profilactic vaccination. As such, disclosed are methods of preventing an infection in a subject comprising administering to the subject the vector of the disclosure.

Also disclosed are methods of the disclosure, wherein the infection prevented is a fungal infection or the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a fungus. The fungal infection or antigen can be selected from the list of Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplama capsulatum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermitidis, Pneumocystis carinii, Penicillium marneffi, and Alternaria alternata.

Also disclosed are methods of the disclosure, wherein the antigen-encoding nucleic acid is an antigen from a parasite. The parasitic antigen can be selected from the group consisting of Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, other Plasmodium species, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania major, other Leishmania species, Schistosoma mansoni, other Schistosoma species, and Entamoeba histolytica.

Also disclosed are methods of the disclosure, wherein the subject is a horse, cow, pig, dog, car, mouse, monkey, human, or a cell isolated from such an animal.

XXIII. Screening Methods

Disclosed herein are methods of identifying new primate T-lymphotropic viruses comprising: a) contacting a nucleic acid using a first set of primers and a second set of primers internal to the first set of primers, wherein the first set of primers is SEQ ID NOs: 19 and 20, and wherein the second set of primers is SEQ ID NOs: 21 and 22 under conditions that permit primer extension; b) identifying any amplified nucleic acid; and c) comparing the sequence to known primate T-lymphotropic viral sequences, wherein a sequence divergence greater than 5% indicates a new virus.

Also disclosed are methods of identifying new primate T-lymphotropic viruses comprising: a) contacting a nucleic acid using a first set of primers and a second set of primers internal to the first set of primers, wherein the first set of primers is selected from the group of primers pairs consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, SEQ ID NOs: 11 and 12, SEQ ID NOs: 15 and 16, SEQ ID NOs: 23 and 24, SEQ ID NOs: 27 and 28, SEQ ID NOs: 31 and 32, SEQ ID NOs: 69 and 70, SEQ ID NOs: 73 and 74, and SEQ ID NOs: 77 and 78, wherein the second set of primers is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, SEQ ID NOs: 13 and 14, SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 18, SEQ ID NOs: 25 and 26, SEQ ID NOs: 29 and 30, SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, SEQ ID NOs: 71 and 72, SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, and SEQ ID NOs: 79 and 80; b) identifying any amplified nucleic acid; and c) comparing the sequence to known primate T-lymphotropic viral sequences, wherein sequence divergence greater than 5% indicates a new virus.

It is also understood that the disclosed methods of identifying a new primate T-lymphotrophic virus can be achieved using non-nested PCR techniques such as real-time PCR. Thus, for example, specifically disclosed are methods of identifying new primate T-lymphotropic viruses comprising a) contacting a nucleic acid using a set of primers, wherein the set of primers is selected from the set of primers consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 19 and 20, SEQ ID NOs: 21 and 22, SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, SEQ ID NOs: 11 and 12, SEQ ID NOs: 15 and 16, SEQ ID NOs: 23 and 24, SEQ ID NOs: 27 and 28, SEQ ID NOs: 31 and 32, SEQ ID NOs: 69 and 70, SEQ ID NOs: 73 and 74, SEQ ID NOs: 77 and 78, SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, SEQ ID NOs: 13 and 14, SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 18, SEQ ID NOs: 25 and 26, SEQ ID NOs: 29 and 30, SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, SEQ ID NOs: 71 and 72, SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, SEQ ID NOs: 79 and 80, and SEQ ID NOs: 64 and 65; b) identifying any amplified nucleic acid; and c) comparing the sequence to known primate T-lymphotropic viral sequences, wherein sequence divergence greater than 5% indicates a new virus. Also disclosed are identification methods wherein the method is a real-time PCR method.

Furthermore, the disclosed methods can be used in conjunction with probes to detect the presence of amplification product. Specifically disclosed are fluorescently labeled probes that can be used to detect the amplification product of the disclosed methods. For example, a fluorescent probe, can comprise TTCCCCAAGGCTTCAAAAACAGCCCCACGC (SEQ ID NO: 66).

The surface antigen (SU) and transmembrane regions of env can be used serologically for the identification and differentiation of PTLVs (the type specific peptides MTA-1 and K55 are in SU; likewise the p24 region of gag can be used for the serological identification of PTLV). Thus, disclosed herein are methods of identifying a PTLV comprising contacting a nucleic acid with a set of primers specific for the surface antigen or transmembrane regions of env and identifying any amplified nucleic acid.

In addition, the disclosed peptides, polypeptides, proteins and protein fragments can be used to generate antibodies that can be used to identify new and known primate T-lymphotropic viruses. Specifically disclosed are methods of identifying the presence of a primate T-lymphotropic virus in a subject comprising taking a tissue sample from the subject and contacting the sample with an antibody directed to an HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 peptide, polypeptide, protein, or protein fragment, wherein the peptide, polypeptide, protein, or protein fragment can be SEQ ID NO: 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 67, or 68, or the polypeptide, protein, or protein fragment encoded by the nucleic acid of SEQ ID NO: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 35, 36, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 53, 59, 61, 63, or 81, and wherein binding of the antibody to the sample indicates the presence of a new or known primate T-lymphotropic virus. The disclosed methods also can be used to identify new primate T-lymphotropic viruses as well as detect all primate T-lymphotropic viruses or a group of particular primate T-lymphotropic viruses. Those of skill in the art will know which antibodies to use to accomplish their detection goal. For example, to detect more than one of the known HTLV viruses (HTLV-1, 2, and 3, or HTLV-1, 2, and 4) one can use type specific peptide of HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 such as SEQ ID NO: 67 and 68.

Also provided is a method of screening a substance for effectiveness in treating or reducing the severity of the condition (e.g., HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 infection) comprising: a) obtaining an animal having the condition or characteristic (e.g., symptom) of the condition; b) administering the substance to an animal having one or more characteristics of the condition; and assaying the animal for an effect on the condition, thereby identifying a substance effective in reducing the condition. The ability of a substance to reduce the severity of a condition can be determined by evaluating the histological and/or clinical manifestations of the condition before and after administration of the substance of interest, and quantitating the degree of reduction of the histological and/or clinical manifestations of the condition. The animal in which the condition or characteristic (e.g., symptom) of the condition is produced can be any mammal, and can include but is not limited to mouse, rat, guinea pig, hamster, rabbit, cat, dog, goat, monkey, and chimpanzee. The condition or characteristic (e.g., symptom) of the condition can be produced in the animal by any method known in the art. For example, HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 can be produced by introducing into the animal (e.g., a chimpanzee infected with HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 or rhesus macaques or nemestrina macaques infected with an HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 env on an SIV backbone. Pullium et. al., J. Infectious Dis. 183:1023, 2001) an infectious amount of HTLV-3 or HTLV-4.

The present disclosure also provides a method of screening for a substance effective in preventing the condition (e.g., HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 infection) comprising: a) administering the substance to an animal susceptible to the condition; b) subjecting the animal to treatment that will induce the condition or characteristic (e.g., symptom) of the condition; and c) assaying cells from the animal for an change in immune responses as compared to an the immune responses in a control animal having the condition in the absence of the substance identifies a substance that is effective in preventing the condition.

Also provided is a model for use in screening for substances effective in treating or preventing a disease comprising an animal capable of manifesting a characteristic of the disease, wherein the animal has been administered the vector of the disclosure.

Further embodiments are methods of making a model of HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 infection, comprising obtaining an animal capable of manifesting a characteristic of the disease, and administering to said animal one of the vectors disclosed herein that encodes an antigen associate with the disease. Also disclosed is a method of screening for a substance effective in treating a disease associated with an immunizing construct, the method comprising: a) administering the substance to the model of the disclosure; and b) assaying for an change in the course of the disease as compared to an the course of the disease in a control subject. An improvement in the course of the disease in the presence of the substance identifies a substance that is effective in treating the disease.

Still other embodiments are methods of screening for a substance effective in preventing a disease associated with an immunizing construct, the method comprising: a) administering one of the vectors disclosed herein to a subject; b) subjecting the subject to treatment that will induce the disease or characteristic (e.g., symptom) of the disease; and c) assaying for an change in the course of the disease as compared to an the course of the disease in a control subject. An improvement in the course of the disease in the presence of the substance identifies a substance that is effective in preventing the disease.

Yet still other embodiments are methods of screening for a substance effective in treating a disease associated with an immunizing construct, the methods comprising: a) subjecting a subject to treatment that induces the disease or characteristic (e.g., symptom) of the disease; b) administering to the subject one of the vectors disclosed herein; and c) assaying for a change in the course of the disease as compared to an the course of the disease in a control subject. An improvement in the course of the disease in the presence of the substance identifies a substance that is effective in treating the disease.

XXIV. Methods of Using the Disclosed Compositions as Research Tools

The disclosed compositions can also be used diagnostic tools related to primate T-lymphotropic diseases such as HTLV-3 and HTLV-4.

XXV. Methods of Making the Compositions

The compositions disclosed herein and the compositions necessary to perform the disclosed methods can be made using any method known to those of skill in the art for that particular reagent or compound unless otherwise specifically noted.

XXVI. Processes for Making the Compositions

Disclosed are processes for making the disclosed compositions as well as making the intermediates leading to the compositions. For example, disclosed are nucleic acids in SEQ ID NOs: 1-6, 35, 36, 45, 53, and 81. There are a variety of methods that can be used for making these compositions, such as synthetic chemical methods and standard molecular biology methods.

In some embodiments, a nucleic acid molecule is produced by the process of linking in an operative way a nucleic acid comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1-6, 35, and 45 and a sequence controlling the expression of the nucleic acid. In certain examples, the nucleic acid molecule is produced by linking in an operative way a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence having 80% identity to a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1-6, 35, and 45, and a sequence controlling the expression of the nucleic acid. In other embodiments, the nucleic acid molecule is produced by linking in an operative way a nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to a sequence set forth SEQ ID NOs: 1-6, 35, and 45 and a sequence controlling the expression of the nucleic acid.

In other embodiments, a transformed cell is produced by transforming the cell with any of the nucleic acids disclosed herein, for example, any of the non-naturally occurring nucleic acids disclosed herein. In still other embodiments the peptides disclosed herein are produced by expressing any of the disclosed nucleic acids.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how the compounds, compositions, articles, devices and/or methods claimed herein are made and evaluated, and are intended to be purely exemplary and are not intended to limit the disclosure. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C. or is at ambient temperature, and pressure is at or near atmospheric.

Example 1

To determine whether HTLVs are present among individuals exposed to the blood and body fluids of wild primate populations (Wolfe et al. 2004a) known to be infected with STLV (Courgnaud et al. 2004), individuals were examined from twelve villages in southern Cameroon proximal to both forested and nonforested NHP habitats. Individuals were asked to identify and quantify their exposure to NHPs, which were organized according to three categories reliably distinguished by this population: chimpanzee, gorilla and monkey (Wolfe et al. 2004a). A total of 930 who reported exposure to NHP blood and body fluids, mainly through hunting and butchering were selected for further analysis. Plasma specimens from exposed people were screened for PTLVs using an HTLV-1/2 EIA (ELISA Immunoassay) capable of detecting antibodies to a broad range of PTLVs, followed by confirmation with an HTLV Western blot (WB) assay that can distinguish HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 (van Dooren et al. 2004). A total of 97 (10.4%) persons were EIA reactive of which 90 (9.7%) were also reactive in the WB assay. A broad range of WB profiles were seen, including HTLV-1-like (1.1%), HTLV-2-like (0.5%), HTLV-positive but untypeable (1.4%), and HTLV indeterminate (6.7%).

DNA from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) available from 86 of the 90 WB reactive samples were then subjected to PCR amplification of several viral regions. Viral sequences from 13 persons were obtained using this strategy. The WB reactivities of these 13 persons is shown in FIG. 1 and included HTLV-1-like (n=9), HTLV-2-like (n=1), and HTLV indeterminate (n=3) profiles. All 13 HTLV-infected persons were exclusively from lowland forest sites, including both men and women who often reported multiple opportunities for contact with the blood and body fluids of NHPs (Table 3). Since PTLV diversity is influenced more by geography than by primate species (Salemi et al 1999, Slattery et al. 1999, Gessain & Mahieux 2000), viral sequences were analyzed phylogenetically along with African and global representatives of HTLV and STLV.

TABLE 3 Nonhuman primate exposures for human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-infected central African hunters NHP Exposure Hunting Hunt Butcher Pet Reported ID Site HTLV Nearest PTLV Sex Age Technique m c g m c g m c g Injuries 1842 LE HTLV-1 Group D - m 32 x Mandrill clade 1863 LE HTLV-4 Distinct from all m 48 S x x x bitten/ major PTLV scratched groups by wild animal 2472 LE HTLV-1 Group A f 27 x Cosmopolitan 979 MO HTLV-1 Group B- Central m 30 G x x monkey African bite 1127 MO HTLV-1 Group D - m 44 g, s x x x x Mandrill clade 1380 MV HTLV-1 Group B- Central f 55 x x x African 1443 MV HTLV-1 Group B- Central f 71 x x x African 1503 MV HTLV-1 Group B- Central f 75 x x x African 1537 MV HTLV-1 Group B- Central m 39 g, s x x wild African animal injured finger 2026 ND HTLV-3 STLV-3 m 63 S x x 2656 ND HTLV-1 Group G - Central m 65 G x x x West Africa 1259 NG HTLV-1 Group D - m 71 g, s x x bitten/ Mandrill clade scratched by wild animal 2810 YI HTLV-1 Group G - Central m 55 S x x West Africa * m = monkey, c = chimpanzee, g = gorilla. †, PTLV, primate T lymphotropic virus; STLV, simian T-lymphotropic virus

TABLE 4 Nucleotide and Amino Acid Percent Identities¹ HTLV-1 HTLV-2 STLV-2 STLV-3 HTLV-3 (ATK) (MoT) (PP1664) (TGE2117) (2026ND) HTLV-3_(2026ND) Genome (8917-bp) 61.6 62.9 62.6 87.0 — LTR(697-bp) 48.7 43.7 41.4 86.7 — gag (1268-bp) 69.3(83.2) 69.4(80.5) 70.6(80.7) 87.5(96.0) — pro (534-bp) 59.7(62.6) 59.2(66.7) 59.4(59.3) 84.3(88.1) — pol (2670-bp) 62.2(66.2) 63.9(71.2) 63.5(69.9) 86.2(93.1) — env (1476-bp) 65.9(73.8) 69.0(78.2) 67.1(77.4) 87.8(95.7) — tax (1053-bp) 76.3(81.4) 75.1(83.4) 74.4(80.4) 91.2(97.4) — rex (549-bp) 76.9(61.9) 76.3(60.6) 75.8(63.5) 87.6(89.6) — pX (699-bp) 43.3 50.5 49.8 85.6 — HTLV-4_(1863LE) Genome (5320-bp) 64.0 72.2 71.4 66.2 66.1 pro (273-bp)² 71.4(55.6) 79.5(28.1) 79.5(36.0) 71.8(29.2) 73.3(31.7) pol (2549-bp)² 63.6(68.7) 71.4(80.1) 71.0(79.7) 65.2(71.7) 64.8(71.6) env (1458-bp) 65.8(75.9) 73.1(85.3) 72.0(85.5) 67.2(78.8) 68.5(79.4) tax (765-bp)² 77.4(85.1) 81.7(92.6) 79.4(92.9) 75.2(86.7) 75.0(86.3) rex (512-bp) 76.0(63.9) 79.5(74.1) 80.7(68.8) 72.5(57.7) 72.7(59.4) pX (559-bp) 46.1 60.8 59.9 53.6 51.3 ¹Amino acid identiities are in parentheses. ²Only partial sequences are available

Most notable of the findings was the discovery of a human virus that is distinct from all known PTLV lineages with 26-34% and 18-25% nucleotide divergence in the conserved pol and tax genes, respectively, a range of nucleotide divergence similar to that seen between HTLV-1, HTLV-2, and STLV-3 (Meertens et al. 2002; Table 4). This virus formed a separate phylogenetic lineage with a long branch length and significant bootstrap support in both the pol (FIG. 2 a: pol tree) and tax trees. Phylogenetic analyses combined with GenBank blast searches show that this is the only known virus in this novel group. For these reasons this virus, which is designated HTLV-4, qualifies as the first member of a novel species in the deltaretrovirus genus. Following ICTV guidelines (van Regenmortel 2000) and pending formal classification, it is proposed that primate T-lymphotropic virus 4 (PTLV-4) be the name for this species, with PTLV-4(1863LE) as the prototype strain. HTLV-4 was found in a 48 year old male hunter (1863LE) from the southern forests of Cameroon who had an HTLV-2-like WB result and reported hunting monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillas, and also being bitten and scratched by a wild animal, although the animal causing the injury was not specified.

Also documented, with significant phylogenetic bootstrap support, is the first evidence of human infection within the PTLV-3 group (FIG. 2 a: pol tree). This virus, which is designated HTLV-3, clusters with STLV-3 viruses present in West African NHPs as expected (FIG. 2 d: LTR tree). HTLV-3 was found in a 63 year old male (2026ND) from the southern forests of Cameroon who had an HTLV-1-like WB result and who reported hunting and butchering of monkeys. The fact that this virus falls within the diversity of a group of STLVs first identified in 1994 (Goubau et al 1994) without evidence of a human counterpart to date, indicates that this infection was most likely acquired zoonotically through exposure to the blood or body fluids of a hunted NHP from this region (Courgnaud et al. 2004).

In addition, broad diversity of HTLV-1 viruses was also found in this collection. Of the 11 HTLV-1 sequences, two did not fall within any of the known HTLV-1 subtypes but clustered clearly within a clade that included only STLV-1 from central and west Africa (FIG. 2 d: LTR tree). One of these viruses clustered with STLV-1 from monkeys in Cameroon and was from a 65 year-old male (2656ND) from the southern forest zone of Cameroon. He reported hunting and butchering of monkeys and kept a gorilla as a pet (Table 3). The second virus clustered with STLV-1 recently identified in chimpanzees and red colobus monkeys (Leendertz et al. 2004) and was from a 55 year old male (2810YI) who reported hunting and butchering of monkeys (Table 3). The presence of these viruses in hunters, seen previously only among NHPs, indicates that these persons were infected zoonotically. This distinct clade is referred to as HTLV-1 subtype G. Three subjects (1259NG, 1127MO, 1842LE) from different villages were found to have HTLV-1 subtype D, viruses known to infect geographically overlapping populations of humans and mandrills in central Africa (FIG. 3 LTR tree (Mahieux et al. 1998). Two of the three viruses were found in hunters (Table 3), providing indirect evidence of cross-species transmission between humans and mandrills within subtype D and supporting further the claims of cross-species transmission of this subtype (Mahieux et al. 1998). These results are consistent with SFV infection from mandrills that was documented previously in this population (Wolfe et al 2004) and indicate that the frequent hunting of mandrills may explain the widespread transmission of mandrill retroviruses. Five persons (979MO, 1380MV, 1443MV, 1503MV, 1537MV) were infected with HTLV-1 subtype B viruses, which are known to be endemic among humans in central Africa and which are believed to have originated from STLV-1 in this region (Mahieux, R. et al 1997, Gessain, A. & Mahieux, R 2000; FIG. 3: LTR tree). Thus, these five new subtype B viruses may have been acquired either zoonotically from STLV-1-infected primates or from human-to-human transmission, or both.

Notably, a 71 year old female (1443MV) who reported butchering gorillas was found to be infected with a virus most closely related to STLV-1 found in two gorillas from Cameroon (Nerrienet 2004, Courgnaud et al 2004), although without significant bootstrap support (FIG. 3 LTR). Interestingly, person 1503MV is also WB positive for SFV (Wolfe et al 2004), indicating that zoonotic transmission in an individual is not limited to a single retrovirus and providing a biological setting for viral recombination and altered pathogenicity and transmissibility of these viruses. One person (2472LE) was infected with the HTLV-1 subtype A virus, a clade consisting of sequences from only globally disseminated HTLV-1 and thus this infection was most likely acquired through human-to-human transmission. DNA samples from the remaining 73 persons with reactive WB results were all negative by the generic PCR assay for tax sequences and four other sequences specific for each PTLV clade, including HTLV-4. The results demonstrate that HTLV diversity is far greater than previously understood. The data indicate that contact with the blood and body fluids of NHPs is a major factor in the emergence of novel HTLVs, which are known to be transmissible among humans and have the potential to cause disease. Because the hunting and butchering of wild NHPs is widespread throughout central Africa (Bowen-Jones & Pendry 1999) and STLVs are known to be highly prevalent among hunted NHPs (Courgnaud et al. 2004), it is suspected that zoonotic transmission of STLV is not a restricted risk. Since blood banks in central Africa do not generally screen for HTLV, further spread of these viruses among central Africans may be facilitated by blood donations from infected persons. That HTLV-4 represents a previously unrecognized virus being transmitted between humans indicates that more substantial screening for this virus in central African populations is needed. The finding that both HTLV-4 and HTLV-3 are serologically indistinguishable from HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 in current assays can explain why these viruses have not been previously identified, and highlight the importance of improved diagnostic assays. The increasing evidence that primate hunting is associated with the emergence of a range of simian retroviruses (Wolfe et al. 2004b) calls for increased surveillance and follow-up of individuals exposed to the blood and body fluids of wild NHPs, and for effective strategies to control the hunting of NHPs.

Methods Ethical Approvals

Studies were conducted in the context of a community-based HIV prevention campaign designed to provide information using Cameroonian educators and counselors and therefore to decrease transmission. Participation in the study was completely voluntary. The study protocol was approved by the Johns Hopkins Committee for Human Research, the Cameroon National Ethical Review Board, and the HIV Tri-Services Secondary Review Board. Questionnaires and matching samples were anonymized by removing all personal identifiers to provide an unlinked study population.

Sample Preparation and Serology

Blood was collected from participants, transported to a central laboratory, processed into plasma and PBMC aliquots and stored at −80° C. Initial screening for HTLV antibodies in serum and plasma samples was performed by using the Vironostika HTLV-1/2 microelisa system (Organon-Teknika, Durham, N.C.) following the manufacturer's instructions. Reactive samples were then tested in a WB test (HTLV Blot 2.4, Genelabs Diagnostics, Singapore) that contains disrupted HTLV-1 virions, a gp21 recombinant protein (GD21) common to both HTLV-1 and HTLV-2, and two HTLV-type specific recombinant envelope (Env) peptides, MTA-1 and K55, which allow serological differentiation of HTLV-1 and HTLV-2, respectively. Samples with reactivity to the Gag (p24) and Env (GD21) proteins were considered seropositive. Seropositive samples with reactivity to MTA-1 or K55 were considered HTLV-1-like or HTLV-2-like, respectively. Samples with reactivity to either p24 or GD21 alone or in combination with other HTLV proteins (FIG. 1) were considered indeterminate.

PCR and Sequence Analysis

DNA was prepared from uncultured PBMCs and its integrity was confirmed by β-actin PCR as previously described. All DNA preparation and PCR assays were performed in a laboratory where only human samples are processed and tested following recommended precautions to prevent contamination. DNA samples were first screened with a generic PTLV tax PCR assay capable of detecting 222-bp sequences from each of the three major PTLV groups (Busch et al. 2000, van Dooren et al. 2004). Sequence analysis of this tax sequence provided broad genetic classification into each PTLV group. Phylogenetic resolution within the PTLV-1 and PTLV-3 groups was done using LTR sequences as described previously (van Dooren et al. 2004, Meertens et al. 2001). A portion of the 3′ HTLV-1 LTR from selected samples (1259NG, 1127MO, 1842LE, and 2810YI) was amplified by nested PCR using external primers 5VLTRext 5′ AACCACCCATTTCCTCCCCATG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 19; Meertens et al. 2001) and 1MNDR1 5′GTCGTGAATGAAAGGGAAAGGGGT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 20; Meertens et al. 2001), and the internal primers Enh280 5′ TGACGACAACCCCTCACCTCAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 21; Meertens et al. 2001) and 1MNDR2 5′ AGGGGTGGAACTTTCGATCTGTAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 22; Meertens et al. 2001). The tax (577-bp) and polymerase (pol) (709-bp) sequences of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 were amplified by nested PCR using primers designed from conserved PTLV regions. The external and internal tax primers are PTLVTPG 5′T(C/T)ACCT(G/A)GGACCCCATCGATGGACG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7) and PGTAXR1 5′ GAIGA(T/C)TGI A(C/G)TAC(T/C)AAAGATGGCTG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8) and PH2Rrev 5′ CCTTATCCCTCGICTCCCCTC CTT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9) and PGTAXR2 5′ TTIGGG(T/C)AIGGICCGG AAATCAT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10), respectively. The external and internal pol primers are PGPOLF1 5′ C(T/G)TTAAACCIGA(A/G)CGCCT CCAGGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 11) and PGPOLR1 GG(T/C)(A/G)TGIA (A/G)CCA(A/G)(A/G)CIAG(T/G)GG CCA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12) and PGPOLF2 5′ AC(T/C)TGGT(C/T)(C/T) (G/C)(G/C)A(A/G)GGCCCTGGAGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13) and PGPOLR2 5′ G(A/G)(T/C)(A/G)GGIGTIC CTTTIGAGACCCA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 14), respectively. Inosines (I) and wobble bases (N/N) were used to accommodate areas of heterogeneity (Table 5).

Additional diagnostic PCR with PTLV-specific primers was carried out on samples with negative results for the generic 222-bp tax fragments. Assays described previously were used for PTLV-1 env and STLV-3 LTR (van Dooren et al. 2004) and HTLV-2 env (Switzer et al. 1995). For HTLV-4, a new nested PCR assay was developed based on the HTLV-4 tax sequence using the external primers 1863TF1 5′ CTCCTTCTTTCAGTCCGTGCGGAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 15) and 1863TR1 5′ GGGGTAGTCAGGTTTGGCTGGTAT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 16) and the internal primers 1863TF2 5′ CCTACCGCAACGGATGTCTTGAAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 17) and 1863TR2 5′ TATGGCGCC GGTGTGATGATAAAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 18) and standard conditions to generate a 275-bp fragment. Percent nucleotide divergence was calculated using the Gap program in the Genetic Computer Group's Wisconsin package. Sequences were aligned using the Clustal W program, gaps were removed, and distance-based trees were generated by using the Kimura two-parameter model in conjunction with the NJ method in the MEGA program (version 2.1) as described elsewhere (van Dooren et al 2004). 1000 bootstrap replicates were used to test the reliability of the final topology of the trees.

Primate Taxonomic Nomenclature

Nomenclature used herein was as described. NHPs were coded using the first letter of the genus and the first two letters of the species names with their house names or codes within parentheses. Cmo=Cercopithecus mona (Mona monkey), Cne=C. neglectus (De Brazza's guenon), Cmi=C. mitis (Sykes's monkey), Cni=C. nictitans (greater spot-nosed guenon), Cae=Chlorocebus species (African green monkey), Cpo=C. pogonias (crowned monkey), Cto=Cercocebus torquatus (red-capped mangabey), Cag=Cercocebus agilis (agile mangabey), Mog=Miopithecus ogouensis (talapoin monkey), Ani=Allenopithecus nigrpyridis (Allen's swamp monkey), Msp=Mandrillus sphinx (mandrill (mnd)), Pan=Papio anubis (olive baboon (bab)), Pcy=P. cynocephalus (yellow baboon), Pha=P. hamadryas (sacred baboon), Ppu=P. ursinus (chacma baboon), Ppa=P. papio (Guinea baboon), Pba=Piliocolobus badius (red colobus monkey), Mto=Macaca tonkeana (Celebes macaque), Ptr=Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee), Ppn=Pan paniscus (bonobo), Ggo=Gorilla gorilla (western lowland gorilla).

TABLE 5 Sequences of primers used for amplifying partial tax, envelope (env), polymerase (pol) and LTR regions of primate T-cell lymphotropic viruses Expected PCR Annealing Primer sequence^(a) product temp (°C.), Name (5′to 3′) SEQ ID NO. Location^(b) size (bp) No. of cycles PH1F TTGTCATCAGCCCACT (SEQ ID NO: 23) tax, 7243-7262, outer TCCCAGG PH2R AAGGAGGGGAGTCGAG (SEQ ID NO: 24) tax, 7478-7455, outer 236 50, 40 GGATAAGG PH2F CCCAGGTTTCGGGCAA (SEQ ID NO: 25) tax, 7257-7280, inner AGCCTTCT PH2R^(c) AAGGAGGGGAGTCGAG (SEQ ID NO: 26) tax, 7478-7455, inner 222 50, 40 GGATAAGG PTLVTPG T(C/T)ACCT(G/A)G (SEQ ID NO: 7) tax, 7480-7504, outer GACCCCATCGATGG ACG PGTAXR1 GAIGA(T/C)TGIA (SEQ ID NO: 8) tax, 8140-8115, outer 660 45, 40 (C/G)TAC(T/C)A AAGATGGCTG PH2Rrev CCTTATCCCTCGICTC (SEQ ID NO: 9) tax, 7529-7552, inner CCCTCCTT PGTAXR2 TTIGGG(T/C)AIGGI (SEQ ID NO: 10) tax, 8106-8085, inner 577 45, 40 CCGGAAATCAT PGPOLF1 C(T/G)TTAAACCIGA (SEQ ID NO: 11) pol,2611-2634, outer (A/G)CGCCTCCAGGC PGPOLR1 GG(T/C)(A/G)TGIA (SEQ ID NO: 12) pol, 3598-3575, outer 987 45, 40 (A/G)CCA(A/G) (A/G)CIAG(T/G)GG CCA PGPOLF2 AC(T/C)TGGT(C/T) (SEQ ID NO: 13) pol, 2643-2666, inner (C/T)(G/C)(G/C)A (A/G)GGCCCTGGAGG PGPOLR2 G(A/G)(T/C)(A/G) (SEQ ID NO: 14) pol, 3352-3329, inner 709 45, 40 GGIGTICCTTTIGAGA CCCA PGENVF1 TGGATCCCGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 27) env, 5114-5136, outer (A/C)GI(C/T)TCCT IAA PGENVR1 GT(A/G)TAIG(C/G) (SEQ ID NO: 28) env, 5576-5552, outer 462 45, 40 (A/G)(C/G)AIGTCC AIG(A/C)(T/C)TGG PGENVF2 AIAGACC(T/A) (SEQ ID NO: 29) env, 5186-5209, inner (C/T)CAAC(A/T)CC ATGGGTAA PGENVR2 G(A/C)(T/C)TGGCA (SEQ ID NO:30) env, 5557-5535, inner 371 45, 40 ICCIA(A/G)GTAIGG GCA GPLTRF1 (G/A)CCACCAICTIG (SEQ ID NO: 31) LTR, 8256-8282, outer IGGACAAATAGCTGA GPLTRR2 C(C/T)GGGCCAAGCC (SEQ ID NO: 32) LTR, 8830-8807, outer 575 45, 40 TCGCTGCAGGCA GPLTRF2 ACCIIGGCTCTGACGT (SEQ ID NO: 33) LTR, 8333-8356, inner CTCTCCCT GPLTRR2 GGCAGIAGAAGTGCTA (SEQ ID NO: 34) LTR, 8810-8787, inner 478 45, 40 CTTTCGAT ^(a)Inosines and wobble nucleotides were included in the primers to accommodate sequence heterogeneity. ^(b)The positions of the the pol, env, and tax primers are given according to human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (strain ATK); the LTR primer positions are given according to the simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type 3 (strain PH969) genome. ^(c)The primer PH2R is used with PH2F in a semi-nested PCR.

Nucleotide Sequence Accession Numbers

The GenBank accession numbers for the 28 new HTLV sequences include AY818406 and AY818433.

Example 2 Ancient Origin and Molecular Features of the Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 3 Revealed by Complete Genome Analysis

Comparison of the HTLV-3(2026ND) Proviral Genome with Prototypical PTLVs

Using a combination of primers designed from small sequences obtained in each of the three major genes of PTLV and the LTR region, the complete genome of HTLV-3(2026ND) was successfully generated as depicted in FIG. 4. Sequence analysis of the overlapping regions, followed by comparison with the genetic structure of other PTLVs, demonstrated that the complete proviral genome of HTLV-3(2026ND) is 8917-bp. Despite being genetically equidistant from HTLV-1 and HTLV-2, the genomic structure of HTLV-3(2026ND) was similar to that of other PTLVs and included the structural, enzymatic, and regulatory proteins all flanked by long terminal repeats (LTRs). Comparison of HTLV-3(2026ND) with prototypical PTLV genomes demonstrates that this new human virus is equidistant from the PTLV-1 (62% identity) and PTLV-2 (63% identity) groups across the genome. The results also confirm that HTLV-3 has the closet nucleotide and protein sequence identity to STLV-3 (87-92% identity; Table 6).

TABLE 6 Percent Nucleotide and Amino Acid Identity of HTLV-3(2026ND) with other PTLV Prototypes¹ HTLV-1 HTLV-2 STLV-2 STLV-3 STLV-3 STLV-3 STLV-3 (ATK) (MoT) (PP1664) (PH969) (PPAF3) (CTO604) (NG409) Genome 61.6 62.9 62.6 86.7 92.0 88.4 90.6 LTR 48.7 43.7 41.4 86.2 91.1 86.9 86.9 gag 69.3 (83.2) 69.4 (80.5) 70.6 (80.7) 86.4 (95.5) 91.3 (97.6) 89.4 (96.2) 90.6 (96.7) p19 (74.4) (68.3) (67.2) (95.9) (95.9) (95.9) (94.3) p24 (90.1) (90.1) (90.6) (98.1) (99.1) (98.6) (99.1) p15 (78.0) (73.8) (72.6) (88.4) (96.5) (90.7) (94.2) pro 59.7 (62.6) 59.2 (66.7) 59.4 (59.3) 83.3 (87.0) 88.8 (91.5) 85.0 (89.3) 88.0 (90.4) pol 62.2 (66.2) 63.9 (71.2) 63.5 (69.9) 86.1 (92.7) 92.6 (94.9) 88.4 (92.9) 92.0 (92.9) env 65.9 (73.8) 69.0 (78.2) 67.1 (77.4) 88.1 (95.1) 92.3 (95.1) 88.4 (94.3) 91.2 (95.3) SU² (68.4) (70.7) (69.7) (92.7) (97.1) (92.4) (94.0) TM² (83.5) (91.6) (91.0) (99.4) (98.9) (97.8) (97.8) rex 76.9 (61.9) 76.3 (60.6) 75.8 (63.5) 87.1 (88.5) 90.9 (94.5) 88.5 (94.0) 88.3 (92.3) tax 75.4 (81.4) 73.1 (83.4) 72.3 (80.4) 90.2 (97.4) 94.0 (98.3) 91.4 (96.6) 92.8 (96.9) ¹amino acid identity in parentheses; strain names given in parentheses below PTLV designation ²SU, surface protein; TM, transmembrane protein

The most genetic divergence between the PTLV groups was seen in the LTR region (52-59%) while the highest inter-group identity was observed in the highly conserved regulatory genes, tax and rex (72-77%). Interestingly, within the PTLV-3 group, HTLV-3(2026ND), which was identified in a hunter from Cameroon, was unique but shared the most overall sequence identity to STLV-3(PPAF3) (92%) from a Senegalese baboon instead of STLV-3(CT0604) (88.4%) identified in red-capped mangabeys, also from Cameroon. This relationship is highlighted further by comparison of HTLV-3(2026ND) with all available full-length STLV-3 genomes in similarity plot analysis where the highest identity was seen in the highly conserved tax gene. As seen within other PTLV groups, there was no clear evidence of genetic recombination of HTLV-3(2026ND) with STLV-3 or PTLV-1 and PTLV-2 proviral sequences by using bootscanning analysis. HTLV-3(2026ND) was not compared to the recently reported second strain of HTLV-3 because only two short sequences were available at GenBank and in these region this virus has been shown to be nearly identical to STLV-3(CT0604) (Callatini et al. (2005) Retrovirology. 2:30).

Organization of the LTR and Pre-Gag Region

As with STLV-3, the HTLV-3(2026ND) LTR (697-bp) was smaller than that of HTLV-1 (756-bp) and HTLV-2 (764-bp), by having two and not three of the 21-bp transcription regulatory repeat sequences in the U3 region (FIG. 5 a; Meertens and Gessain. (2003) J. Virol. 77:782-789; Meertens et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:259-268; Van Brussel et al. (1997) J. Virol. 7:5464-5472; Van Dooren et al. (2004) J. Gen. Virol. 85:507-519). Other regulatory motifs such as the polyadenylation signal, TATA box, and cap site were all conserved in the HTLV-3(2026ND) LTR (FIG. 5 a). By secondary structure analysis of the LTR RNA sequence, a stable stem loop structure from nucleotides 421-464 (FIG. 5 b) was also observed similar to that shown to be essential for Rex-responsiveness control of viral expression in both HTLV-1 and HTLV-2.

Analysis of the Genomic Structure of HTLV-3(2026ND)

Translation of predicted protein open reading frames (ORFs) across the viral genome identified all major Gag, Pol, Pro (protease), and Env proteins, as well as the regulatory proteins, Tax and Rex. Translation of the overlapping gag and pro and pro and pol ORFs occurs by one or more successive-1 ribosomal frameshifts that align the different ORFs. The conserved slippage nucleotide sequence 6(A)-8 nt-6(G)-11nt-6(C) is present in the Gag-Pro overlap, while a point mutation in the Pro-Pol overlap slippage sequence (GTTAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 82) compared to TTTAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 83) in HTLV-1 and HTLV-2) was observed in HTLV-3(2026ND) but the asparagine codon (AAC) crucial for the slippage mechanism was unaffected.

The structural and group specific precursor Gag protein consisted of 422 amino acids (aa) that is predicted to be cleaved into the three core proteins p19 (matrix), p24 (capsid), and p15 (nucleocapsid) similar to HTLV-1, HTLV-2, and STLV-3. Across PTLVs, Gag was one of the most conserved proteins with identities ranging from 81% and 83% for HTLV-1 and PTLV-2, to 95% for STLV-3 supporting the observed cross-reactivity seen with PTLV-3 antisera in Western blot assays using HTLV-1 antigens. Within Gag, the capsid protein showed greater than 90% identity to HTLV-1, while the matrix and nucleocapsid proteins were more divergent sharing less than 78% identity to PTLV-1 and PTLV-2 indicating their potential use in serologic assays for discriminating the three major PTLV groups.

The predicted size of the Env polyprotein is 491 aa, which is slightly shorter than that found in STLV-3s (313 aa versus 314 and 315 for STLV-3(PH969) and STLV-3(CTO-604) due to sequence variation at the carboxy terminus of the surface (SU) protein. In contrast, the transmembrane (TM) protein (178 aa) was highly conserved across all PTLVs supporting further the use of the recombinant HTLV-1 GD21 protein spiked onto WB strips for the identification of divergent PTLVs. Despite the weak reactivity of anti-HTLV-3(2026ND) antibodies to the HTLV-1 type specific SU peptide (MTA-1; Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999) spiked onto WB strips, there was only 70.8% identity of MTA-1 to HTLV-3(2026ND), which is similar to the 68.8% identity of MTA-1 to HTLV-2, demonstrating no clear correlation of WB profile and predicted SU sequence.

The HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 Tax proteins (Tax1 and Tax2, respectively) transactivate initiation of viral replication from the promoter in the 5′ LTR and are thus essential for viral expression (Feuer and Green. (2005) Oncogene. 24:5996-6004). Tax1 and Tax2 have also been shown to be important for T-cell immortalization, while the HTLV-3 Tax (Tax3) has not yet been characterized (Feuer and Green. (2005) Oncogene. 24:5996-6004). Hence, the Tax3 sequences were compared with those of prototypic HTLV-1, PTLV-2, and STLV-3s to determine if motifs associated with these functional characteristics are preserved. Alignment of predicted Tax3 sequences shows excellent conservation of the critical functional regions, including the nuclear localization signal (NLS), cAMP response element (CREB) binding protein (CBP)/P300 binding motifs, and nuclear export signal (NES; FIG. 6). The C-terminal transcriptional activating domain (CR2), essential for CBP/p300 binding, was also very conserved except for a single I/V to F mutation at position five of the motif compared to HTLV-1 and PTLV-2, respectively (FIG. 6). However, this single amino acid change in the STLV-3 Tax has recently been shown in transient transfection assays to have no deleterious effect on viral transactivation (Chevalier et al. (2005) AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 21:513 (Abs. P174)). Since the predicted CR2 domain is conserved in Tax3, similar transactivation activity can be seen with HTLV-3.

Interestingly, although these important functional motifs are highly conserved in PTLV, phenotypic differences of HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 Tax proteins have been observed leading to speculation that these differences account for the different pathologies associated with both HTLVs (Feuer and Green. (2005) Oncogene. 24:5996-6004). Recently, the C-terminus of Tax1, and not Tax2, has been shown to contain a conserved PDZ domain present in cellular proteins involved in signal transduction and induction of the IL-2-independent growth required for T-cell transformation (Rousset et al. (1998) Oncogene. 6:643-654; Tsubata et al. (2005) Retrovirol. 2:46). The presence of a PDZ domain in PTLV-1 and its absence in PTLV-2 indicates a potential role of this motif in the phenotypic differences of the two viral groups. The consensus PDZ domain has been defined as S/TXV-COOH, where the first amino acid is serine or threonine, X is any amino acid, followed by valine and the carboxy terminus. Examination of the PTLV-3 Tax sequences showed that both HTLV-3 and STLV-3 have predicted PDZ domains with the consensus sequence S(P/S)V compared to T(E/D)V in PTLV-1 (FIG. 6).

Besides Tax and Rex, two additional ORFs coding for four proteins (p27^(I), p12^(I), p30^(II), and p13^(II) where I and II denote ORFI and ORFII, respectively) have been identified in the pX region of HTLV-1 (FIG. 4) and are important in viral infectivity and replication, T-cell activation, and cellular gene expression (Bindhu et al. (2004) Front. Biosc. 9:2556-2576). Analysis of the pX region of HTLV-3(2026ND) revealed a total of four putative ORFs (named I-IV, respectively) coding for 96, 122, 72, and 118 aa in length. While both ORFIII (72 aa) and ORFIV (118 aa) shared identity to the ORFII of STLV-3 and HTLV-1 and STLV-2/HTLV-2, respectively, and each contained two PXXP motifs, only ORF III was leucine rich like that seen in the leucine zipper motifs of ORFI p12^(I) (Bindhu et al. (2004) Front. Biosc. 9:2556-2576). However, ORFIII did not share any sequence homology with p12^(I) and both ORFI and ORFII shared only weak sequence identity to miscellaneous cellular proteins available at GenBank. Interestingly, 22 of 28 (79%) amino acids in ORFIV (pos 64-91) were identical among the ORFIIs of all PTLVs indicating a conserved functionality of this motif.

A protein termed the HTLV-1 basic leucine zipper ZIP (bZIP) factor (HBZ) was recently identified in translation of the complementary strand of the viral RNA genome between the env and tax/rex genes (Gaudray et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:12813-12822). Although originally reported to be exclusive to PTLV-1 (Gaudray et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:12813-12822), HBZ is conserved among PTLVs (FIG. 7), including HTLV-3(2026ND), demonstrating further the potential importance of this protein in viral replication and oncogenesis. The carboxy terminus of the HBZ ORF contains a 21 aa arginine rich region that is relatively conserved in PTLV and known cellular bZIP transcription factors, followed by a leucine zipper region possessing five or four conserved leucine heptads in HTLV-1 and all other PTLVs, respectively (FIG. 7). PTLV-1 has 5 leucine heptads similar to that found in mammalian bZIP proteins, while PTLV-1 and PTLV-2 have four leucine heptads followed by leucine octet (FIG. 7). Of all PTLVs with full length genomes available at GenBank, only HTLV-2(MoT) did not have the full complement of leucine heptads but was limited to the initial three leucine motifs due to a one nucleotide deletion at position 6823 causing a frameshift in the predicted HBZ sequence.

Phylogenetic Analysis

The genetic relationship of HTLV-3(2026ND) to PTLV-3 was confirmed by using aligned full-length prototype sequences excluding the LTR region (FIG. 8 a). Phylogenetic analysis inferred three major PTLV groups with very high bootstrap support (100%) with HTLV-1, HTLV-2 and HTLV-3 each clustering in separate clades (FIG. 8 a). Within the PTLV-3 phylogroup, HTLV-3(2026ND) formed a separate lineage but clustered with high bootstrap support with STLV-3s from west central Africa (strains CTO604, CTO-NG409, and PPA-F3) indicating a possible primate origin for this human infection in this geographic region. The relationship of HTLV-3 to STLV-3 was supported further by phylogenetic inference of identical tree topologies using an alignment of each major gene region (FIG. 8 b-8 d). The phylogenetic stability seen across the PTLV genome also demonstrates further the absence of major recombination events occurring in PTLV despite evidence of dual infections in humans and primates (Courgnaud et al. (2004) J. Virol. 78 :4700-4709), compared to other retroviruses such as HIV which undergo frequent recombination.

Dating the Origin of HTLV-3(2026ND) and Other PTLVs

The finding of HTLVs in three distinct clades indicates an ancient, independent evolution of these viruses. Hence, additional molecular analyses was undertaken in order estimate the divergence times of the PTLV lineages. Although others have reported finding a clock-like behavior of STLV-3 sequences (Meertens and Gessain. (2003) J. Virol. 77:782-789; Meertens et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:259-268; Meertens et al. (2003) J. Gen. Virol. 84:2723-2727), these results were not confirmed and instead found that PTLVs evolved at different rates by using an alignment of full-length PTLV genomes sans LTR sequences. However, reliable retrovirus divergence times can be obtained by using nonparametric rate smoothing of the sequences to relax the stringency of a clock assumption followed by time calibration of the tree using a value of 40,000-60,000 YA for the origin of the Melanesian HTLV-1 (Sanderson (2003) Bioinformatics. 19:301-2; Switzer et al. (2005) Nature. 434:376-380; Van Dooren et al. (2004) J. Gen. Virol. 85:507-519). By using these dates and methods, the mean evolutionary rate for PTLV was estimated to be 1.12×10⁻⁶ (confidence interval 6.82×10⁻⁷ to 1.56×10⁻⁶) substitutions/site/year, respectively, which is consistent with rates determined previously both with and without enforcing a molecular clock (Lemey et al. (2005) Infect. Gen. Evol. 5:291-298; Meertens and Gessain. (2003) J. Virol. 77:782-789; Meertens et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:259-268; Meertens et al. (2003) J. Gen. Virol. 84:2723-2727; Salemi et al. (2000) Mol. Biol. Evol. 17:374-386; Van Dooren et al. (2004) J. Gen. Virol. 85:507-519). The mean evolutionary rate for HTLV-3(2026ND) is estimated to be 9.94×10⁻⁷ (confidence interval 6.04×10⁻⁷ to 1.38×10⁻⁶). The PTLV ancestor was estimated to have originated about 630,000-947,000 YA confirming an archaic evolution of the primate deltaretroviruses (FIG. 9; Salemi et al. (2000) Mol. Biol. Evol. 17:374-386). The separation of PTLV-1 and PTLV-2 occurred about 579,077-867,458 YA, while HTLV-2 and STLV-2 diverged around 191,621-286,730 YA (FIG. 9). The origin of all PTLV-3s was estimated to be between 63,294-94,700 YA with the ancestor of HTLV-3(2026ND) occurring about 36,087-54,067 YA (FIG. 9) indicating an ancient origin of this virus in humans. Alternatively, HTLV-3 may represent a recent zoonoses from a primate infected with a very old, divergent STLV-3. However, if HTLV-3 is an old human infection, then it appeared during the same period as the ancestor of both HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 (40,000-60,000 and 28,800-43,392 YA, respectively) and may have also spread to become endemic in specific populations yet to be identified.

Discussion

The complete nucleotide sequence and genomic characterization of the first HTLV-3 that is clearly distinct from all STLV-3s and is genetically equidistant to HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 is described herein. HTLV-3(2026ND) is also unique from the second HTLV-3(Py143) reported recently in a Bakola pygmy from Cameroon since the latter strain is nearly identical to STLV-3 found in a red-capped mangabey, based on the limited sequence data available for this virus (Callatini et al. (2005) Retrovirology. 2:30). Although HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 are pathogenic and have spread globally to become endemic in different human populations, little is known about the epidemiology of HTLV-3 infection. However, detailed, comparative sequence analyses of viral genomes can help provide important molecular clues to the origin, evolution, and public health importance of novel human infections.

Like other PTLVs, HTLV-3(2026ND) is genetically stable and its slow evolutionary rate, combined with estimates of known human migrations, can then be used to infer divergence times for HTLV. The finding that the predecessor of HTLV-3(2026ND) originated over 30 millenia ago, an age which is estimated that the ancestors of both HTLV-1 and -2 to have appeared, combined with the wide geographic distribution of STLVs and the recent finding of another HTLV-3 in an African pygmy (Callatini et al. (2005) Retrovirology. 2:30; Gessain and Mahieux. (2000) Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 93:163-171; Meertens and Gessain. (2003) J. Virol. 77:782-789; Meertens et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:259-268; Meertens et al. (2003) J. Gen. Virol. 84:2723-2727; Takemura et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:1642-1648; Van Dooren et al. (2004) J. Gen. Virol. 85:507-519), collectively indicate that HTLV-3 infection be more frequent than previously understood. In addition, the archaic age of the ancestral HTLVs and the recent finding of STLV-like infections in African hunters collectively imply that cross-species transmission of STLVs to humans is both an ancient and contemporary phenomenon coupled to behavior that exposes humans to nonhuman primates. The ancient origin of HTLV contrasts with that reported for HIV, which is believed to have only crossed over into humans from SIV-infected NHPs within the last century, and indicates a long period of viral evolution and adaptation in humans possibly resulting in the observed lower pathogenicity for HTLV compared to HIV (Hahn et al. (2000) Science 287:607-614; Sharp et al. (2000) Biochem Soc Trans. 28:275-282).

Screening for HTLV-3 can be facilitated by the application of diagnostic serologic and molecular assays based on the sequences reported here. For example, the data show that the Gag matrix and nucleocapsid regions and the envelope surface protein are relatively conserved within PTLV-3 but are divergent from PTLV-1 and PTLV-2 and can thus be used to differentiate the three PTLV groups with serological methods.

At the molecular level, examination of the genomic structure showed that the enzymatic, regulatory, and structural proteins are well preserved in HTLV-3(2026ND), including conserved functional motifs in Tax important for viral expression and T-cell proliferation. The finding of a PDZ domain in the Tax protein of HTLV-3(2026ND), like that seen in HTLV-1 but not HTLV-2 (Feuer and Green. (2005) Oncogene. 24:5996-6004), which has been shown to be important in cellular signal transduction and T-cell transformation (Rousset et al. (1998) Oncogene. 6:643-654; Tsubata et al. (2005) Retrovirol. 2:46), indicates that the HTLV-3 Tax is more phenotypically similar to HTLV-1 than HTLV-2. The high amino acid identity of the PTLV-3 Tax proteins combined with the ability of STLV-3 to transform human cells in vitro indicates that the HTLV-3 Tax functions similarly (Goubau et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:2848-2852).

In contrast to the tax gene, the HTLV-3(2026ND) LTR has only two of the three conserved promoters identified in HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 that are responsible for basal viral transcription levels and like STLV-3 is missing the TATA-distal 21-bp repeat element (Meertens and Gessain. (2003) J. Virol. 77:782-789; Meertens et al. (2002) J. Virol. 76:259-268; Meertens et al. (2003) J. Gen. Virol. 84:2723-2727; Van Brussel et al. (1997) J. Virol. 7:5464-5472; Van Dooren et al. (2004) J. Gen. Virol. 85:507-519). All of the remaining functional elements in the LTR were conserved, including the stem loop structure necessary for Rex responsive control of viral expression in HTLV-1 and -2.

Recently, a HBZ protein was identified in translation of the complementary strand of the viral RNA genome between the env and tax/rex genes (Gaudray et al. (2002) J Virol. 76:12813-12822). Protein translation on the minus-strand RNA is a unique feature of HTLV-1 not previously seen in retroviruses. HBZ was shown to be involved in the negative regulation of viral replication (Gaudray et al. (2002) J Virol. 76:12813-12822). The more recent finding of HBZ mRNA expression in ATL patients indicates a role of HBZ mRNA in the survival of leukemic cells in vivo and in HTLV-1-associated oncogenesis (Satou et al. (2006) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 103:720-725). Although originally reported to be exclusive to PTLV-1 (Gaudray et al. (2002) J Virol. 76:12813-12822), HBZ is conserved among PTLVs, including HTLV-3(2026ND), demonstrating further the potential importance of this protein in viral replication and oncogenesis. Of all PTLVs with full length genomes available at GenBank, only HTLV-2(MoT) did not have the full complement of leucine heptads in the leucine zipper due to a frameshift mutation in the predicted HBZ sequence.

In summary, disclosed herein, HTLV-3(2026ND) is genetically stable and has an ancient origin. HTLV-3(2026ND) genomic structure is relatively conserved and contains many of the functional motifs important for the viral expression and pathology associated with HTLVs.

Materials and Methods DNA Preparation and PCR-Based Genome Walking

DNA was prepared from uncultured PBMCs available from person 2026ND identified in the original PTLV surveillance study in Cameroon reported in detail elsewhere (Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). DNA integrity was confirmed by β-actin polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as previously described (Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). All DNA preparation and PCR assays were performed in a laboratory where only human specimens are processed and tested according to recommended precautions to prevent contamination. To obtain the full-length genomic sequence of HTLV-3 small regions of each major coding region were PCR-amplified by using nested PCR and degenerate PTLV primers. The tax (577-bp) and polymerase (pol) (709-bp) sequences were amplified by using primers and conditions provided elsewhere (Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). Envelope (env) (371-bp) sequences were amplified by using standard PCR conditions with a 45° C. annealing temperature and the external and internal primers PGENVF1 5′ TGGATCCCGTGG(A/C)GI(C/T)TCCTIAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 27) and PGENVR1 5′ GT(A/G)TAIG(C/G)(A/G)(C/G)AIGTCCAIG(A/C)(T/C)TGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 28) and PFENVF2 5′ AIAGACC(T/A)(C/T)CAAC(A/T)CCATGGGTAA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 29) and PGENVR2 5′ G(A/C)(T/C)TGGCAICCIA(A/G)GTAIGGGCA 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 30), respectively. A 398-bp fragment of the long terminal repeat (LTR) was obtained by using conserved STLV-3 primers as previously reported (Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999).

HTLV-3(2026ND)-specific primers were then designed from sequences obtained in each of the four viral regions described above and were used in nested, long-template PCRs to fill in the gaps in the genome as depicted in FIG. 4 by using an expand high fidelity kit containing both Taq and Tgo DNA polymerases (Roche). The external and internal primer sequences for the LTR-pol and pol-env fragments are 2026LF1 5′ GGTAAGATCCCACTGGGTCGAGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 69) and 2026PR1 5′ GAAGCCAGGTCTCGGGTGACG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 70) and 2026LF2 5′ CGCTCCCCTGGAGCTCTCTCG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 71) and 2026PR2 5′ GCCACTTCCCATTGGGCTTTTTGACGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 72) and 2026 PF3 5′ GCTCTCACCGATAAAGTAACAAACG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 73) and 2026ER1 5′ GGTAGGAAGAGGCTCCTATGAACAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 74) and 2026 PF2 5′ CAGGACTGCATAACATACGAGACCCTCC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 75) and 2026ER3 5′ CCTATGAACAGGGTGCATCGACTGGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 76), respectively. The external and internal primer sequences used to obtain about 3 kb of the 3′ end of the genome (env-tax-LTR) are 2026EF1 5′ CCTAAGCCCCCCATGTCCAGAC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 77) and 2026LR1 5′ CGAGAGAGCTCCAGGGGAGCG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 78) and 2026EF3 5′ CCTACTCCCTGTATGTATTCCCCCATTGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 79) and 2026LR2 5′ GCTCGACCCAGTGGGATCTTACCGAGTGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 80), respectively.

PCR products were revealed on 1.5% agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide, purified with a Qiaquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen) and sequenced in both directions with a BigDye terminator cycle kit and automated sequencers (Applied Biosystems). Selected PCR products were also cloned into the pCR4-TOPO vector using the TOPO TA Cloning kit (Invitrogen) and recombinant plasmid DNA was prepared using the Qiagen plasmid purification kit prior to automated sequencing.

Sequence and Phylogenetic Analysis

Percent nucleotide divergence was calculated by using the GAP program in the Genetic Computer Group's (GCG) Wisconsin package (Thompson et al. (1994) Nucleic Acids Res. 22:4673-4680). LTR RNA secondary structure was determined using the program RNAstructure v4.2 (Mathews et al. (1999) J. Mol. Biol. 288:911-940). Sequences were aligned by using the Clustal W program (Womble (2000) Methods Mol. Biol. 132:3-22), gaps were removed, and distance-based trees were generated by using the Kimura two-parameter model in conjunction with the neighbor-joining (NJ) method in the MEGA program (version 2.1) and maximum likelihood (ML) analysis in the PAUP* program as described in detail elsewhere (Switzer et al. (2005) Nature. 434:376-380; Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). The reliability of the final topology of the trees was tested with 1,000 bootstrap replicates. Comparison of full-length PTLV genomes available at GenBank was done using HTLV-3(2026ND) as the query sequence and the F84 (ML) model and a transition/transversion ratio of 2.0 implemented in the program SimPlot (Lole et al. (1999) J. Virol. 73:152-160).

For dating of HTLV-3(2026ND), full-length genomes from prototypical PTLVs available at GenBank were aligned with HTLV-3(2026ND) by using Clustal W, gaps were removed, and minor adjustments in the alignment were made manually. LTR sequences were excluded from the analysis since this region does not align accurately in PTLVs. The best fitting evolutionary model for the aligned sequences was determined with Modeltest v3.6 (Posada and Crandall. (1998) Bioinformatics. 14:817-818). The general time-reversible model, allowing six different substitution rate categories, with gamma-distributed rate heterogeneity (1.9724) and an estimated proportion of invariable sites (0.3687), was determined to be the best fit to the data. Little substitution saturation was observed in the 7213-bp alignment (P<0.00001) as determined with the DAMBE program, and was therefore satisfactory for use in phylogenetic analyses. Likewise, using the best-fitting evolutionary model defined above, good phylogenetic signal in the alignment was also found with likelihood mapping analysis using the program Tree-Puzzle v5.2.

The molecular clock hypothesis, or constant rate of evolution, was tested by using the likelihood ratio test with the likelihoods for the ML and clock-like ML trees obtained in PAUP*. The clock was tested with the best-fitting evolutionary model estimated in Modeltest, and ML trees were constructed in PAUP* starting from the NJ tree that is iteratively optimized using two consecutive heuristic searches with nearest neighbor interchange followed by a final heuristic search with the tree-bisection-reconnection algorithm. To adjust for rate heterogeneity among different PTLV taxa, clock-like ML trees were then transformed into ultrametric trees using the nonparametric rate smoothing (NPRS) algorithm in the program TreeEdit (v1.0a10 carbon) (Sanderson (2003) Bioinformatics. 19:301-2). The branches of the NPRS tree were then scaled by using a divergence time of 40,000-60,000 years ago (ya) for the Melanesian HTLV-1mel lineage based on genetic and archaelogical evidence of when the ancestors of indigenous Melanesians and Australians migrated from Southeast Asia (Lemey et al. (2005) Infect. Gen. Evol. 5:291-298; Salemi et al. (2000) Mol. Biol. Evol. 17:374-386; Salemi et al. (1999) AIDS Rev. 1:131-139). Variance in age estimates (branch lengths) was determined in PAUP* with 100 bootstrap repetitions by enforcing topological constraints and using a heuristic search without branch swapping on the clock-like ML tree. Branch lengths in all 100 trees were calibrated as before and average divergence times and confidence intervals (α=0.05) were calculated in Excel. The evolutionary rate was estimated based on a known divergence time point of 40,000-60,000 ya and on the branch length of the ML clock-like tree according to the formula: evolutionary rate (r)=branch length (bl)/divergence time (t) (Van Dooren et al. (2004) J. Gen. Virol. 85:507-519).

Nucleotide Sequence Accession Number

The HTLV-3(2026ND) proviral sequence has the GenBank accession number DQ093792.

Example 3 Generation and Analysis of the Human T-lymphotropic Virus Type 4 Complete Genome

The full-length genomic sequence of HTLV-4 (SEQ ID NO: 81) shown in FIG. 10 was obtained substantially as described above in Example 2 for the identification if the HTLV-3 full-length genomic sequence. Briefly, DNA was prepared from uncultured PBMCs available from a subject identified in the original PTLV surveillance study in Cameroon reported in detail elsewhere (Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). DNA integrity was confirmed by β-actin polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as previously described (Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). To obtain the full-length genomic sequence of HTLV-3, small regions of each major coding region were PCR-amplified using nested PCR and degenerate PTLV primers.

HTLV-3(2026ND)-specific primers were then designed from sequences obtained in each of the four viral regions described above (tax, pol, env, and LTR), and used in nested, long-template PCRs to fill in the gaps in the genome using an expand high fidelity kit containing both Taq and Tgo DNA polymerases (Roche). PCR products were revealed on 1.5% agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide, purified with a Qiaquick™ PCR purification kit (Qiagen) and sequenced in both directions with a BigDye™ terminator cycle kit and automated sequencers (Applied Biosystems). Selected PCR products were also cloned into the pCR4-TOPO vector using the TOPO TA Cloning kit (Invitrogen) and recombinant plasmid DNA was prepared using the Qiagen plasmid purification kit prior to automated sequencing.

Percent nucleotide divergence was calculated by using the GAP program in the Genetic Computer Group's (GCG) Wisconsin package (Thompson et al. (1994) Nucleic Acids Res. 22:4673-4680). LTR RNA secondary structure was determined using the program RNAstructure v4.2 (Mathews et al. (1999) J. Mol. Biol. 288:911-940). Sequences were aligned by using the Clustal W program (Womble (2000) Methods Mol. Biol. 132:3-22), gaps were removed, and distance-based trees were generated by using the Kimura two-parameter model in conjunction with the neighbor-joining (NJ) method in the MEGA program (version 2.1) and maximum likelihood (ML) analysis in the PAUP* program as described in detail elsewhere (Switzer et al. (2005) Nature. 434:376-380; Wolfe et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:7994-7999). The reliability of the final topology of the trees was tested with 1,000 bootstrap replicates. Table 7 shows a comparison of the genetic identity of the HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 full-length genomes with other PTLV prototypes. The stem loop structure necessary for Rex responsive control of viral expression in HTLV-1 and -2 was retained in HTLV-4(1863LE), and is shown in FIG. 11.

TABLE 7 Genetic Identity of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 Genomes with other PTLV Prototypes (strain) HTLV-1 STLV-1 HTLV-2 STLV-2 STLV-3 STLV-3 HTLV-3 HTLV-3 HTLV-4 (ATK) (Tan) (MoT) (PP1664) (TGE2117) (CTO604) (2026ND) (Pyl43) (1863LE) HTLV-3 2026ND 61.6 61.6 62.9 62.6 87.1 88.4 — 88.5 63.2 Pyl43 62.3 62.1 63.1 63.2 87.7 99.2 88.5 — 63.0 HTLV-4 1863LE 62.0 62.0 70.7 70.8 63.5 63.1 63.2 63.0 —

For dating of HTLV-4(1863LE), full-length genomes from prototypical PTLVs available in GenBank were aligned with HTLV-3(2026ND) and HTLV-4(1863LE) essentially as described in Example 2 using Clustal W. The analysis, shown in FIG. 12, again inferred four major phylogroups with very high bootstrap support, confirming the genetic relationships that were based on smaller sequences. Both HTLV-3s again clustered with STLV-3s supporting a primate origin for these viruses. HTLV-4 again formed a new lineage distinct from PTLV-1, PTLV-2, and PTLV-3. However, the primate origin of HTLV-4 was less clear since there is not yet a known simian counterpart for this virus. These results also indicated the absence of genetic recombination in PTLVs, which is a common mechanism that leads to increased genetic diversity of HIV.

The finding of HTLVs in four distinct clades indicated an ancient, independent evolution of these viruses. Thus, additional molecular analyses were performed to estimate the divergence times of the PTLV lineages. FIG. 13 shows the estimated divergence dates for the most recent common ancestor of HTLV-3(2026ND), HTLV-4(1863LE) and other PTLVs. Using the bovine leukemia virus (BLV) as an outgroup, a substitution rate of 8.6×10⁻⁷ to 1.3×10⁻⁶ substitutions/site/year for PTLV was inferred which is 3 logs lower than that seen in HIV, confirming the genetic stability of these deltaretroviruses.

Using these substitution rates, molecular dating inferred an ancient origin for PTLVs hundreds of thousands of years ago with the most recent common ancestor for each HTLV group ranging from 30,000 years ago for HTLV-2 to 456,000 years ago for HTLV-4. This finding contrasts with the more recent origin of HIV-1, which has been estimated to have occurred within the last century.

The inferred ancient origin for HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 indicates that exposure to these viruses may have been occurring for millennia, and thus these viruses may be more prevalent than currently known. Alternatively, HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 may represent more recent infections with highly divergent STLVs that have yet to be identified. This is probably the case for the HTLV-3(Py143) strain, since the high genetic identity of this virus to STLV-3RCM is similar to that seen in transmission pairs. Expanded surveillance of both humans and primates is warranted.

Changes in the molecular structure and genetic sequences of viruses has been proposed to play a role in the increased transmissibility and pathogenicity of viruses following cross-species transmission and adaptation to a new host. Thus, the genetic structure and sequences of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 were examined to determine if the genome was intact and if important functional motifs involved in viral expression and HTLV-1-induced leukemogenesis are preserved. The Tax proteins of HTLV-3 were also characterized using in vitro assays to determine if motifs involved in Tax-mediated leukemogenesis were present and functioning.

While all structural and enzymatic proteins of both HTLV-3s and HTLV-4 were intact, features that are either unique or similar to those of other HTLVs were identified (see Table 8). First, the genomes of HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 are shorter than HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 by having only two of three Tax response elements in the LTRs. However, the loss of this distal TRE has been shown to not significantly affect HTLV expression. In addition, only two TREs are present in STLV-3 and STLV-2 suggesting this difference is not a result of adaptation to a new host. Likewise, the finding of AP-1 and c-Myb transcription factors in place of the HTLV-3 or HTLV-4 LTRs is also not unique but are also present in STLV-3.

Overall, the HTLV-3 Tax protein contains many of the functional motifs important for viral expression and leukemogenesis attributed to HTLV-1 Tax. Detailed in vitro analysis confirmed that the HTLV-3 Tax was similar in function to the HTLV-1 Tax protein, suggesting a pathogenic potential in HTLV-3-infected persons like that observed in HTLV-1. The HTLV-3(Py143) genome is also shorter by a 366-bp deletion in the pX region that disrupts the HBZ reading frame suggesting a loss of Tax suppression and T-cell proliferation believed to be associated with this gene.

TABLE 8 Unique Genetic Features of HTLV Prototypes: HTLV-3 is more similar to HTLV-1 HTLV-1 HTLV-2 HTLV-3 HTLV-3 HTLV-4 (ATK) (MoT) (2026ND)* (Pyl43)** (1863LE) Genome (bp) 9068 8952 8917 8553 8791 LTR (bp) 756 764 697 695 696 # LTR TREs 3 3 2¹ 2¹ 2¹ Other LTR TFs — — AP-1 c-Myb c-Myb Tax transactivates Yes Yes Yes Yes Tax localization Nucleus Cytoplasm Nucleus Tax p53 inhibition Yes Yes PDZ BD in Tax Yes No  Yes Yes No HBZ Yes No² Yes No³ Yes ¹missing distal TRE ²HBZ is present in other HTLV-2 ³366-bp deletion in pX *Switzer et al. J Virol. 2006; 80: 7427-38. **Calattini et al. J Virol. 2006; 80: 9876-88.

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SEQUENCES

-   SEQ ID NO: 1 (HTLV-3 pol) (pos 2407-5076) -   SEQ ID NO: 2 (HTLV-4 pol) (pos 3-2549) -   SEQ ID NO: 3 (HTLV-3 env) (pos 5069-6544) -   SEQ ID NO: 4 (HTLV-4 env) (pos 2542-3999) -   SEQ ID NO: 5 (HTLV-3 tax) -   SEQ ID NO: 6 (HTLV-4 tax) -   SEQ ID NO: 7 (PTLVTPG) -   SEQ ID NO: 8 (PGTAXR1) -   SEQ ID NO: 9 (PH2Rrev) -   SEQ ID NO: 10 (PGTAXR2) -   SEQ ID NO: 11 (PGPOLF1) -   SEQ ID NO: 12 (PGPOLR1) -   SEQ ID NO: 13 (PGPOLF2) -   SEQ ID NO: 14 (PGPOLR2) -   SEQ ID NO: 15 (1863TF1) -   SEQ ID NO: 16 (1863TR1) -   SEQ ID NO: 17 (1863TF2) -   SEQ ID NO: 18 (1863TR2) -   SEQ ID NO: 19 (5VLTRext) -   SEQ ID NO: 20 (1MNDR1) -   SEQ ID NO: 21 (Enh280) 

1. An isolated primate T-lymphotropic virus sequence comprising one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 35, and
 45. 2. The isolated primate T-lymphotropic virus sequence of claim 1, wherein the isolated primate T-lymphotropic virus consists of SEQ ID NO: 36, 53, or 81, or a nucleic acid sequence having 95% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 36, 53, or
 81. 3. The primate T-lymphotropic virus of claim 1, wherein the isolated primate T-lymphotropic virus comprises: (a) SEQ ID NO:1; (b) SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 3; (c) SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 5; (d) SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 35; (e) SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 45; (f) SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, and 5; (g) SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 35, and 45; (h) SEQ ID NO: 2; (i) SEQ ID NOs: 2 and 4; (j) SEQ ID NOs: 2 and 6; (k) SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, and 6; (l) SEQ ID NO: 36; (m) SEQ ID NO: 53; or (n) SEQ ID NO:
 81. 4. An isolated primate T-lymphotropic virus having: (a) a gag gene that has less than 69% identity to the gag gene of HTLV-1, HTLV-2, STLV-2, and STLV-3; (b) a pol gene that has less than 63.5% identity to the pol gene of HTLV-1, HTLV-2, STLV-2, and STLV-3; (c) a pol gene that has less than 62% identity to the pol gene of HTLV-1, HTLV-2, STLV-2, and less than 86% identity to the pol gene of STLV-3; (d) a LTR that has less 41% identity to the LTR of HTLV-1, HTLV-2 and STLV-3; (e) at least 92.8% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 1; (f) at least 92.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 3; (g) at least 94.2% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 5; (h) at least 92.8% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 1, at least 92.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 3, and at least 94.2% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 5; (i) at least 71.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 2; (j) at least 73.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 4; (k) at least 82% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 6; or (l) at least 71.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 2, at least 73.5% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO: 4, and at least 82% identity to the nucleic acid SEQ ID NO:
 6. 5. A vector comprising the primate T-lymphotropic virus of claim
 1. 6. The vector of claim 3, further comprising a heterologous nucleic acid.
 7. The vector of claim 6, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid is a nucleic acid encoding an antigen from a pathogen functionally linked to a promoter element.
 8. The vector of claim 5, wherein the pathogen is: (a) a virus selected from the group of viruses consisting of Herpes simplex virus type-1, Herpes simplex virus type-2, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Varicella-zoster virus, Human herpesvirus 6, Human herpesvirus 7, Human herpesvirus 8, Variola virus, Vesicular stomatitis virus, Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis D virus, Hepatitis E virus, Rhinovirus, Coronavirus, Influenza virus A, Influenza virus B, Measles virus, Polyomavirus, Human Papilomavirus, Respiratory syncytial virus, SARS, Adenovirus, Coxsackie virus, Dengue virus, Mumps virus, Poliovirus, Rabies virus, Rous sarcoma virus, Yellow fever virus, Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Lassa fever virus, Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus, Japanese Encephalitis virus, St. Louis Encephalitis virus, Murray Valley fever virus, West Nile virus, Rift Valley fever virus, Rotavirus A, Rotavirus B, Rotavirus C, Sindbis virus, Simian Immunodeficiency virus, Human T-lymphotropic virus type-1, Human T-lymphotropic virus type-2, Primate T-lymphotropic virus, Hantavirus, Rubella virus, Human Immunodeficiency virus type-1, and Human Immunodeficiency virus type-2, and Simian Immunodeficiency virus (SIV); (b) a bacterium selected from the group of bacteria consisting of M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. bovis strain BCG, BCG substrains, M. avium, M. intracellulare, M. africanum, M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. ulcerans, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, Nocardia asteroides, other Nocardia species, Legionella pneumophila, other Legionella species, Salmonella typhi, other Salmonella species, Shigella species, Yersinia pestis, Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, other Pasteurella species, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Brucella abortus, other Brucella species, Cowdria ruminantium, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetti, other Rickettsial species, Ehrlichia species, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter species, Neiserria meningitidis, Neiserria gonorrhea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, other Pseudomonas species, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus ducreyi, other Hemophilus species, Clostridium tetani, other Clostridium species, Yersinia enterolitica, and other Yersinia species; (c) a parasite selected from the group of parasites consisting of Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, other Plasmodium species, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania major, other Leishmania species, Schistosoma mansoni, other Schistosoma species, and Entamoeba histolytica; or (d) a fungus selected from the group of fungi consisting of Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplama capsulatum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermitidis, Pneumocystis carinii, Penicillium marneffi, and Alternaria alternata.
 9. The vector of claim 6, wherein the vector comprises an antigen, and wherein the antigen is: (a) a cancer-related antigen selected from the group of cancers consisting of lymphoma, B cell lymphoma, T cell lymphoma, mycosis fungoides, Hodgkin's Disease, myeloid leukemia, bladder cancer, brain cancer, nervous system cancer, head and neck cancer, squamous cell carcinoma of head and neck, kidney cancer, lung cancers such as small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma/glioblastoma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer, liver cancer, melanoma, squamous cell carcinomas of the mouth, throat, larynx, and lung, colon cancer, cervical cancer, cervical carcinoma, breast cancer, and epithelial cancer, renal cancer, genitourinary cancer, pulmonary cancer, esophageal carcinoma, head and neck carcinoma, large bowel cancer, hematopoietic cancers; testicular cancer; colon and rectal cancers, prostatic cancer, and pancreatic cancer; or (b) a cancer antigen selected from the group consisting of human epithelial cell mucin, the Ha-ras oncogene product, p53, carcino-embryonic antigen (CEA), the raf oncogene product, gp100/pmel17, GD2, GD3, GM2, TF, sTn, MAGE-1, MAGE-3, BAGE, GAGE, tyrosinase, gp75, Melan-A/Mart-1, gp100, HER2/neu, EBV-LMP 1 & 2, HPV-F4, 6, 7, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), HPV-16, MUM, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), CO17-1A, GA733, gp72, p53, the ras oncogene product, HPV E7, Wilm's tumor antigen-1, telomerase, and melanoma gangliosides.
 10. A method of vaccinating a subject against an illness associated with a pathogen comprising administering the vector of claim
 5. 11. A method of identifying new primate T-lymphotropic viruses comprising: contacting a nucleic acid using a first set of primers, wherein the first set of primers is selected from the group consisting of: (a) a primer having 100% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 36, 53, or 81; or (b) SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, SEQ ID NOs: 11 and 12, SEQ ID NOs: 13 and 14, SEQ ID NOs: 15 and 16, SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 18, SEQ ID NOs: 19 and 20, SEQ ID NOs: 21 and 22, SEQ ID NOs: 23 and 24, SEQ ID NOs: 25 and 26, SEQ ID NOs: 27 and 28, SEQ ID NOs: 29 and 30, NOs: 31 and 32, SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, SEQ ID SEQ ID NOs: 69 and 70, SEQ ID NOs: 71 and 72, SEQ ID NOs: 73 and 74, SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, SEQ ID NOs: 77 and 78, and SEQ ID NOs: 79 and 80; amplifying the nucleic acid; identifying any amplified nucleic acid; and comparing the sequence to known primate T-lymphotropic viral sequences, wherein sequence divergence greater than 5% indicates a new virus.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the method further comprises contacting the nucleic acid using a second set of primers internal to the first set of primers, wherein the first set of primers is selected from the group of primers pairs consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 7 and 8, SEQ ID NOs: 11 and 12, SEQ ID NOs: 15 and 16, SEQ ID NOs: 19 and 20, SEQ ID NOs: 23 and 24, SEQ ID NOs: 27 and 28, SEQ ID NOs: 31 and 32, SEQ ID NOs: 69 and 70, SEQ ID NOs: 73 and 74, and SEQ ID NOs: 77 and 78, wherein the second set of primers is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 9 and 10, SEQ ID NOs: 13 and 14, SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 18, SEQ ID NOs: 21 and 22, SEQ ID NOs: 25 and 26, SEQ ID NOs: 29 and 30, SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, SEQ ID NOs: 71 and 72, SEQ ID NOs: 75 and 76, and SEQ ID NOs: 79 and
 80. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the first set of primers is SEQ ID NOs: 19 and 20, wherein the second set of primers is SEQ ID NOs: 21 and
 22. 